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Energy Efficiency

On paper, the matchup is simple: plant managers need solutions for energy-driven issues such as fuel bills, emissions compliance, process reliability, and workplace safety. Utilities, with their extensive customer account relationships, would be a superb channel for information outreach to the industrial community, especially if that information is value that attracts and retains customers. In practice, however, this match-up of industry and utility interests is often difficult to achieve.

On the part of manufacturers as well as utilities, the failing is often a function of priorities. These differences aren’t insurmountable, however, as an array of public energy efficiency resources, already developed and freely available, can be tapped by utilities to better serve customers. Energy efficiency conveys benefits to manufacturers in the form of plant reliability and productivity, while also contributing to utilities’ objectives regarding load management, growth, and return on assets. The use of trade allies and Internet communication means that this can be accomplished with negligible effort on the part of hard-pressed utility staff.

Introduction

"Energy efficiency" is a concept that’s often lost somewhere between manufacturing facilities and the energy distribution utilities that serve them. Given the needs of both parties to continually improve their competitive positions, this omission is especially curious. For manufacturers, energy efficiency is manifested in more productive use of fuel inputs. For utilities, it’s a way that allows them to attract and retain customers. Since industry accounts for more than one third of total U.S. fuel use, the issue is relevant to resource and emissions policies, the industrial fuel market, and the immediate business performance of manufacturers and energy utilities.

For the plant manager, applied energy efficiency shouldn’t be an end in itself, but a means for meeting practical objectives such as plant reliability and productivity, return on assets, workplace safety, and emissions compliance. These benefits have a concurrently positive impact on the financial performance of their enterprise. For this discussion, industrial "energy efficiency" is defined as the result of a process that applies technology, knowledge, and management priorities in order to improve productivity-specifically, to improve the ratio of fuel used per unit of production. Energy efficiency can be initiated by an exchange of information in the form of reference material, training, or technical assistance.

If the value of energy efficiency is evident, then why doesn’t industry maximize its potential? Similarly, why don’t utilities universally promote the concept? An assessment of the reasons for this reveals barriers that are real, but not insurmountable. This paper discusses the barriers to embracing industrial energy efficiency, while also suggesting practical solutions to the impasse of resistance. The message that follows will take several dimensions:

  • Energy efficiency can be a facilitator, and not a distraction, to a plant manager’s goals.

  • Efficient fuel use can be the proposition upon which utilities build and maintain market share, especially as utilities seek to retain customers who enjoy an expanding selection of production technologies and fuel choices.

  • Technical reports, case studies, tip sheets, diagnostic software and the like-often freely available-can be employed in utilities’ customer service and marketing efforts that target the industrial sector.

  • Clearinghouses and the Internet make these resources available with negligible search and distribution effort on the part of plant managers and utility representatives.

Background

The Manufacturing Perspective

Global competition and industry deregulation have transformed business environments for manufacturing as well as utility industries. The number and quality of competitors encourages each industry incumbent to continually refine its product mix and production processes in order to survive. A facilitator in this process is information technology, which allows businesses to integrate operational data with financial performance more thoroughly and rapidly. A consequence is a compressed time horizon for evaluating business results-corporations are expected to make ever bigger and faster improvements in financial performance.

The corporate implications of competition are clear. Productivity in the manufacturing process is an inescapable priority, as it is for sales, distribution, and support functions. In the manufacturing process realm, this priority is transmitted to materials and labor utilization, scheduling, asset maintenance, and energy use. Facility managers are responsible for both cost control and reliability of operations-two interests that often conflict. Industrial facility managers may sometimes wish to embrace energy efficiency, but perceive practical barriers to its adoption, diminishing their perception of its value. After all, it is realistic to presume that the typical plant manager is rewarded for ensuring plant reliability, but not necessarily its efficiency.

A survey conducted by the National Association of Manufacturers of more than 400 manufacturers indicates that approximately 85 percent of respondents have given at least cursory attention to energy efficiency. For those respondents who had implemented some measure of energy efficiency, the most frequently cited reasons for doing so were "saving money" (80 percent), "saving the environment" (40 percent), "emissions compliance" (a distant third), "improved community relations," and "requested by customers" (fourth and fifth, respectively). Smaller manufacturers were almost as likely as their larger counterparts to have made some effort. These results still beg the question as to how thorough and lasting such efforts have been. It also doesn’t address the reasons why some manufacturers don’t pursue energy efficiency to its full potential, if at all.

The Alliance to Save Energy conducted a series of industry roundtables that examined plant managers’ motivations for pursuing (or for limiting their pursuit) of energy efficiency in their facilities. These focus groups identified (1) ways in which plant managers currently addressed energy efficiency opportunities; (2) barriers to full implementation; and (3) past experience and current expectations with respect to outside technical assistance.

Sources for Energy Efficiency Initiatives

During the Alliance to Save Energy industry round tables, several sources for current in-plant energy efficiency initiatives were revealed. Among the conclusions:

  • Project ideas originate from officers of the company as well as process workers.

  • Committee structures are sometimes formed to solicit ideas from employees.

  • Regular monitoring and reporting of process inputs and activities find anomalies that indicate potential improvement projects.

  • Parent companies provide corporate energy strategies, financing, and expertise to subsidiary plants.

  • Managers often rely on colleagues, peers, and professional societies for unbiased insights.

  • Larger plants tend to more readily use engineering consulting services, professional society resources, and (historically, at least) utility demand side management (DSM) programs.

  • Simple payback is the most commonly used measure of project viability.

Energy Efficiency Barriers

The Alliance to Save Energy round tables also revealed a number of barriers which can make full implementation of industrial energy efficiency more difficult. Some of these barriers are listed:

  • Managers are often not motivated to act, believing they have already captured all efficiency gains back in the 1970s and 1980s.

  • Many in-house or staff energy managers have been "downsized away." Remaining staff are fewer in number and haven’t the time to keep up with new technologies.

  • Engineering consultants have an incentive to recommend familiar, low-risk technologies, and those with low first costs. This often works to the detriment of energy efficient technologies.

  • Many plant managers for smaller facilities have inadequate or unreliable resources to research available options.

  • Managers cite risks related to economic uncertainty and reliability of new and unknown equipment as a barrier to investment.

Not all opportunities to improve energy efficiency are implemented, even when these are identified through unbiased plant audits. A number of audit opportunities have been available for years through public sector and utility-sponsored programs. As a matter of program evaluation, these audit providers usually follow up with plant managers to determine the rate of implementation of audit findings. One long running and comprehensive manufacturing plant audit opportunity is sponsored through the U.S. Department of Energy’s Industrial Assessment Centers. Only 40 percent to 50 percent of IAC audit recommendations were implemented, on average, at the time of the Alliance roundtable report. Enbridge Consumers Gas of Toronto, Canada is a utility that offers an outstanding plant audit service for its customers. An evaluation of that program, performed in 2001 after 41 audits had been compiled, showed that only 19 percent of all identified energy efficiency projects had been implemented. This equated to 27 percent of the potential volumetric fuel and dollar savings that were identified in the audits.

One review of the literature categorizes energy-user barriers to plant efficiency. These categories include the decision-making process (corporate procedures, prevailing business climate, corporate culture and personalities, etc.); lack of information on the part of the consumer and often on the part of equipment suppliers; limited capital availability; lack of skilled personnel; and difficulty of identifying and quantifying efficiency impacts. Another study recognizes that technological dialog and opportunities vary by industry; mature industries are supposedly characterized by stagnant business conditions and fewer opportunities for equipment change-over. By the same token, industries that enjoy dynamic growth generate a more active technology assessment dialog for its incumbents. The same study also recognizes barriers resulting from industry codes and standards (e.g. operator licensing requirements and related costs) along with government fiscal and regulatory policies (like investment tax credits and depreciation schedules).

The findings from the industry roundtables suggest that poor access to reliable and unbiased information (with risk being enhanced by uncertainty) is the root cause of resistance to energy efficiency in manufacturing plants. "Access," in turn, is tempered by the availability of knowledgeable staff and unbiased references. This indicates a need for more aggressive demonstration of energy technologies, plant practices, and evaluation techniques. For reasons that aren’t entirely clear, managers at smaller facilities in particular still rely on simple payback as a measure of project viability, despite the availability of more rigorous analysis techniques such as life-cycle cost and net present value. This practice can often result in the selection of less-than optimal investments, while also dismissing truly valuable options. It’s no wonder that plants forego so many energy efficiency opportunities. This lack of supporting information is sometimes compounded by corporate-level indifference to energy efficiency. The challenge is to demonstrate the impact of efficiency projects not simply on energy saved but on the very performance metrics that corporate officers care about most.

Energy Efficiency’s Place

"Energy efficiency" has a place in today’s industrial energy markets as a premise upon which manufacturing end-users as well as energy utilities may serve their corporate goals. Energy efficiency is actually a means for purveying productivity. For manufacturers, productivity is enhanced when inputs per unit of product are minimized. For utilities, end-user efficiency is the value proposition upon which industrial consumers can be attracted and retained. Given the fact that efficiency is partly the result of proper plant monitoring and maintenance, the optimized plant also displays more predictable fuel demand. Predictability of demand is a feature that benefits plant managers (in the form of fixed contract fuel purchasing), and utilities in the form of higher load factors applied to their distribution assets, which has directly positive implications for the utility’s financial performance.

While utilities are an ideal channel for communicating energy efficiency opportunities, they often have neither the resources nor authorization to do so. In sum, the barriers to the full implementation of energy efficiency are due to shifting priorities and poor availability of information to decision makers. This impasse may be overcome by employing ready-made, publicly generated reference material. The Internet, plus toll-free clearinghouses, make this dissemination of resources easy and cost-free.

Christopher Russell is senior program manager for the Alliance to Save Energy in Washington, D.C. Information about the article’s sources and references can be obtained by calling Russell at (202) 857-0666. Rebecca Tate and Anthony Tubiolo of the Alliance to Save Energy also contributed to this article.

NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Taking the Reigns

Like many people, Charles Holley’s career path didn’t follow a pre-destined master plan. As with most of us, he found his future through chance, fate, or whatever you want to call it.

So it was in the summer of 1965 when Holley, then working in retail clothing sales, was recommended by an acquaintance for a job with B&B Engineering & Supply Co., Inc., in Houston as a cost and invoicing clerk. The company just happened to be involved in the insulation business.

"That was my first venture into [the industrial insulation industry]. I went over and applied for a job and got it," he said.

And it wasn’t as if Holley was looking to get into the field. He didn’t have a long-term plan to make insulation his career.

"I just happened into it," he said.

After "just happening into it," he decided to stick around-for more than 37 years and counting. Today Holley, almost four decades later, is vice president with Houston-based Protherm Services Group, L.L.C. He is also the National Insulation Association’s 41st president, having taken the reins for a one-year term at the NIA Annual Convention in Maui, Hawaii in March.

"I think it’s a great honor to even be considered for the position," Holley said of becoming president. "It’s an industry and association I have known for many, many years, and I welcome the opportunity to represent the NIA. I don’t know if it’s going to drastically change my life one way or another. It’s going to allow me to go do some things that I will probably find quite enjoyable, being involved in the various regions and meeting a few more people. I think it will be very interesting."

Holley is well-known throughout the industry, not only for his "day job" but for the numerous volunteer leadership roles in which he’s been involved. Besides NIA, a few of the organizations he’s served with include the Southwest Insulation Contractors Association, Houston Insulation Contractors Association, Associated Builders & Contractors, Abatement Contractors Association of Texas and the C-16 Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials.

"I enjoy being involved in the various industry associations," he said. "I think they help determine the pattern and changes in the construction and maintenance industry, in which we’re more involved than anything else. The benefits [from associations] are that you are on the leading edge of changes within the industry, whether they are new trends, new progressive methods, new programs for training of personnel or new developments in safety. It provides the opportunity to be out there more or less leading and knowing what’s taking place, instead of following in the back of the pack and finding out later on what’s coming down the business pipeline."

Goals

In his role as NIA president, Holley, who was born in the black land farm country of north central Texas and has lived in Texas most of his life, recognizes that trying to implement any major plans in a one-year term is probably unrealistic. He said his goals are fairly basic and fundamental, though still important.

"What I would like to see is a greater unity among those involved in our industry," Holley said. "I’d like to see a higher level of professionalism for everyone participating in the industry, and greater participation by our members in their industry association matters and activities-Let’s get more people involved in doing things instead of just a select few who might be sitting on the board. Let’s get all the 800-something members of this association involved in one way or another. I also think we need to respond to the needs of our membership and attempt to provide the products and services of importance. I’m mainly talking here about NIA responding to the needs of the membership-to see what it is that they want as a service and what they feel would benefit them."

Holley also points out that he hopes to see continued progress with previously launched initiatives designed to give the industry a higher profile.

"If I have a long-range goal, it would be to continue what we set out to do about five years ago," he said. "I would like to see the momentum and progress moving in a positive direction for our industry. That’s what we started through the GIIP (Growing the Insulation Industry Program [since changed to The Foundation]) to improve the industry image and professionalism while getting our name out in front of more influential people. I think we’ve accomplished that to a certain extent."

Still, Holley recognizes that plenty of work needs to be done. Even with NIA efforts such as The Foundation, its involvement with the Alliance to Save Energy and other ventures designed to broaden industry recognition, it’s still a constant battle to deliver the message to the masses.

"It can be frustrating because for many years insulation has been thought of as a necessary evil-something to protect people from getting burned or keep lines from icing," he said. "A lot of people don’t recognize the energy savings that can be achieved by utilizing our products. I know that in the design of a lot of commercial buildings, if they’re exceeding budgets one of the first things they do is cut out some of the insulation."

Educating the Audience

To counter those images and perceptions, Holley said the industry has to keep up its efforts in teaching the benefits of insulation to the people with which it does business.

"The primary challenge is going to be educating our clients-the owners, designers, specifiers and developers-about the advantages of our products and services," he said. "We need to be able to respond to those challenges and continue our efforts to inform our industry clients about what we’re doing, how we’re doing it and what we can save them [in terms of cost and energy]. I think we should also continue our efforts in working toward energy rebates and/or tax incentives through our federal, state and local government for using our products. That’s just another incentive to get the end users to use our products and services.

Holley does express confidence that progress is being made, slowly but steadily. He believes programs such as the Insulation Energy Appraisal Program, which provides real time and real dollar savings data through tools such as the 3E Plus® computer program, are a step in the right direction.

"I think the tools are in place to start us down that road, especially with the 3E Plus® program," he said. "That gives quantified information to people we sometimes consider to be hard to persuade, such as the engineers or architects, that the products will really do what we say they can do. With the 3E Plus® program, it allows us to put some data in front of those people who might be a bit skeptical and say, ‘These are the facts, now go ahead and look and see.’ Let them convince themselves because the figures don’t lie."

Internal Improvements

From an internal standpoint, Holley echoes the sentiments of many others when he says certain steps need to be taken to maintain insulation as a viable and important part of the overall construction industry. Perhaps the most crucial factor in the equation is maintaining a strong workforce.

"The advent of more training on the merit shop side would be a major factor," he said. "I think we need to really set some patterns and goals within the industry to be able to attract more people and retain them. I’m talking about the blue-collar workers that are so very important to the livelihood of this business. We really need to look at getting the wages up to an acceptable level so they can make ends meet. You can’t afford to beat people down, as far as wages go, forever. It may not be as much as a problem in other regions, but here in the South and Southwest, our craft is probably one of the lowest paid in the construction and maintenance industry."

The solution? Holley returns to the education theme that he said was important in teaching clients about insulation’s value. The same applies to the industry’s workforce.

"It’s really going to center around training, to get them [workers] to the point where they’re a skilled hand and can show that they’re a craftsman through any sort of training program," he said. "If we can demonstrate that we have trained these people and either provide certifications or graduate certificates or skill assessment documents to show that these people are accredited in one form or fashion, then we have something we can put out there. We can say, ‘Look, these people are skilled and qualified,’ and they can ask for-actually they’ll be able to demand-a little bit more money. If you can do that, the trained worker will increase productivity with less rework and better safety. So, there are several benefits."

Broad Perspective

Holley’s long career has touched almost every aspect of the industrial insulation industry. He’s been involved in costing, invoicing, estimating, project management, sales and corporate management. Holley’s tenure spans union and merit shop contracting companies involving insulation, fireproofing, refractory, scaffolding, painting, asbestos and lead paint abatement. In addition, he has served in managerial and/or officer positions with industry related specialty fabrication companies and a material distribution company.

It’s that kind of experience that Holley thinks gives him a good "worldview" of industry issues and helps him keep things in perspective through both thick and thin periods.

"Having gone through all facets of the industry, all the way from accounting into management, I can see what takes place at every level," he said. "Knowing that, I realize how important it is to communicate what’s going on within a company up through the various levels so everybody knows what’s going on. You have keep people informed to keep them moving in the right direction. I appreciate the trials and tribulations of the material distribution company, the problems of the manufacturers, and the problems of the contractors, because I’ve sat on those sides of the desk. I can appreciate what they’re going through and how it effects them with upturns or downturns in the industry and the demand from either the contractor or owner to meet certain time frames or deadlines."

In terms of his personal working style, Holley said he enjoys looking at a project and situation, exploring all the options and coming up with the best way of getting the job done.

"I like to assesses the task at hand to figure out where we need to go from there, depending on how far or how in-depth we need to go in evaluating a bid package or putting together a maintenance proposal or any other number of packages we might have in house," he said.

Ideally, the solution doesn’t have to be all that complicated.

"Instead of re-inventing the wheel each time, you need to ask if you can use some of the same information you’ve used in previous quotations or previous proposals," said Holley. "Maybe it’s out in the field-maybe you have a unique problem. What did we do in the past? How has it worked? You just have evaluate each task at hand and figure out the most proficient way to go about handling it."

As for the future, Holley said he hasn’t given much thought to what he might want to do (other than maintaining his single digit handicap on the golf course). But regardless of what lies ahead, he looks back with fondness on a career in a field that, if not for a tip from that acquaintance back in 1965, may never have happened.

"I’ve enjoyed all of my time in the industry," he said. "I’ve been very fortunate in meeting some really nice people-not only clients, but competitors as well. I find people very interesting and you can learn something from them if you listen. So I’ve enjoyed that time.

NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Package Boilers: Save Energy with Brick, Refractory, Insulation and Lagging

Many medical, industrial, college, and government facilities are energy sufficient and generate all or a very large portion of their own electricity or steam for heating. Most of these facilities use a small steam-generating boiler called a "package boiler." A package boiler is a pre-engineered steam-generating boiler with different ranges in size and steam capacity (typically from 10,000 to 200,000 pounds/hour). For these facilities to save energy, they must understand their package boiler design and the important role that brick, refractory, insulation and lagging have in that design.

Though brick, refractory, insulation, and lagging (bril) may be one of the smallest of the components found at a medical, industrial, college, or government facility, it pays to pay attention to your bril. The bril found on these package boilers are key components of the boiler for energy savings and are necessary for personnel protection, required for heat conservation, and vital for efficient boiler operation. A package boiler is operating efficiently only when it’s using the least amount of fuel required to meet its operating conditions.

The bril materials are key components of these package boilers. The bril, just like the tubes that carry the water and/or steam, the soot blowers that keep the unit free of fly ash or dust, and the burners that burn fuel, help keep the package boiler operating in a thermally and energy-efficient manner. The bril used on these package boilers aren’t only necessary for safety and heat conservation, but are also considered a key component of the boiler design for optimizing energy savings. When a package boiler is operating efficiently it will be using the least amount of fuel (energy savings) required to meet its operating conditions.

It’s helpful to understand a little about the package boiler history and design. There are many types of package boilers designed over the past 50 years with many different names. Some of the more common still found in operation are the FM-D series by Babcock & Wilcox, the "A" series by Combustion Engineering (now called ABB), the AG series by Foster Wheeler, the MH series by Riley Stoker (now called Babcock Borsig), the Keystone M series by Zurn/Erie City, the Nebraska package boiler and the Keeler Company DS package boilers.

The package boiler design has been evolving since the late 1940s. The industrial market and the demand for package boilers haven’t stopped growing. This is mainly because they come completely shop-assembled and can be moved from one location to another. It’s difficult to move them but it can be done. They can fit in very small areas of a facility and they can generate a lot of heat and power when maintained and operated properly.

The D-type Package Boiler

The Babcock & Wilcox Company developed the first package boiler in the late 1940s. This package boiler design was developed from their field assembled "F" series boilers (F, FF, FH, FL, FP, and FO). The FO is the actual forerunner to the FM design.

The D-type shop-assemble boiler (i.e. Foster Wheeler AG and the Babcock & Wilcox FM) has a D-shaped furnace area on one side, with the boiler bank on the other, and it utilizes two drums. A super heater bank might be added for higher capacity units. The boiler is fired parallel to the drums toward the rear wall where the gas turns 180 degrees and goes toward the gas outlet.

The front walls of the D-shaped furnace cavity are usually either all brick or all refractory. The front wall is also called the burner wall because the burners are located there. For example, the Babcock & Wilcox FM boilers used 9-inch thick brick walls backed with at least 1-inch thick insulation. Originally this material contained asbestos, but now it would be a mineral wool board class 5 meeting American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C-612. The Foster Wheeler AG series burner wall has a 12-inch thick refractory design and uses a combination of insulating castable and medium weight type castable. When these burner walls were installed in the shop they were usually laid flat on the floor. The whole wall, including the refractory cast burner throat area or tile lined throats, were raised into position by the use of cranes and pulleys. To replace a cast throat design for a burner you will have to change the material from a castable type to a plastic type because it would be impossible to cast a burner throat in a vertically positioned wall.

The rear wall of the furnace area of these D-type boilers started out as either all brick or refractory. These walls ranged from 9 inches thick to 12 inches thick and used a combination of materials (brick, tile, insulation, insulating castable, medium weight castable) to achieve its design thickness and temperature requirements. Later these walls became flat studded or membrane tube walls and required refractory only to seal gaps and openings.

All outer exposed boiler and furnace walls for the D-type boilers were insulated with a fiberglass blanket type material with an outer casing design. Lagging partially replaced the outer casing on many of the larger size units by 1967 and was used around the middle band section of the boilers. The insulation thickness ranged from 2-1/2 inches to 4 inches thick depending on the pressure of the boilers. Boilers up to 700 psi usually had 2-1/2 inch or 3 inch thick insulation and boilers with 701 psi and up had 4-inch thick insulation.

A high duty type brick or tile with a Pyrometric Cone of Equivalent (PCE) of 31-32 was used on the floor inside the furnace area to protect the tubes. Refractory was used to seal the boiler and furnace areas to prevent gas leakage and to protect the super heater headers.

The A-type Package Boiler

The A-type package boiler [i.e. Combustion Engineering (ABB) Company "A- series" and Riley Stoker (Babcock Borsig) MH series] has the shape like a capital "A." Tubes forming the "A" design surround the furnace cavity. The boiler is fired parallel to the tube walls toward the rear wall where the gas turns 180 degrees on both sides and exits out at the gas outlets.

Combustion Engineering (now ABB) developed its A-type package boiler in the 1950s. It was designed to improve package boiler reliability and to reduce the tube replacement cost. The FM design by Babcock & Wilcox had a thinner tube wall than the Combustion Engineering "A" type tube walls. This "A" boiler series had welded tube panels and utilized an outer casing design. The end walls, burner wall and rear wall were an all-refractory castable type design. An insulating and medium weight refractory was used in combination to achieve its design thickness and temperature requirements. No tile or brick was required on the floor of this boiler. Refractory was used in all other areas of this boiler design for sealing gaps to provide maximum heat conservation.

The Riley Stoker (Babcock Borsig) MH series was very similar to the Combustion Engineering (ABB) Boiler except that it used a brick and tile construction for the front and rear walls of the furnace area. These walls backed their brick or tile construction with 4-inch thick insulating board on the front wall and 5-inch thick insulating board on the rear wall. A high duty type square edge tile with a PCE of 31-32 was used on the floor inside the furnace area to protect the tubes.

For either the Combustion Engineering (ABB) or Riley Stoker (Babcock Borsig) package boiler, refractory was used to seal the boiler and furnace areas to prevent gas leakage and to protect the super heater headers. All exposed boiler and furnace walls for the A-type boilers were insulated with a mineral wool board or blanket type material 1-1/2 inch to 2-1/2 inch thick and utilized an outer casing design. The Riley Stoker (Babcock Borsig) MH series also used two layers of 1/4 inch thick asbestos millboard to backup their mineral wool board insulation.

The O-type Package Boiler

The O-type boiler was also introduced to the power generating industrial market in the 1950s. This type of boiler had a two-drum design. The tubes form the "O" and surround the furnace cavity. Just like the A-boilers, this type of boiler is fired parallel to the tube walls toward the rear wall where the gas turns 180 degrees on both sides and exits at the gas outlets.

This package boiler design was manufactured by Erie City/Zurn Boiler Company. The O-type boiler, like the "D" and "A," came in a variety of sizes and steam capacities. Brick, refractory, and insulation were necessary in all areas of this uniquely shaped boiler.

The Erie City/Zurn Boiler design was called their M series or Keystone (probably because they were manufactured in the state of Pennsylvania). The M series used a combination of high duty tile with a PCE of 31-32 and insulating castable on the rear wall and castable refractory and insulating firebrick on the burner or front wall area. The floor area inside the furnace was lined with a high duty tile. Refractory was used in all other areas of this boiler design, as with the D and A boilers, for sealing gaps to provide maximum heat conservation. The boiler and furnace walls were either a membrane or seal welded tube construction and utilized a 2-1/2 inch thick mineral wool board and outer casing construction to meet its temperature requirements.

Mobile Package Boilers

Another type of package boiler is the modulatic industrial boiler design. This type of package boiler is the most mobile of all because it comes on a skid. It may appear to be quite different from the "D," "A," and "O" type package boilers. However, the fundamental similarity is refractory and insulation. Refractory and insulation are still very important for this small package boiler to be thermally and energy efficient. An insulating castable or a high temperature insulation is required between the two shell casings to keep this package boiler thermally and energy efficient.

Brick, Refractory, Insulation and Lagging: Saving Energy

The drawings and schematics of all of these types of package boilers show the brick, refractory, insulation, and/or lagging. Lagging is only found on the very largest of package boilers around the middle of the units. Bril is found in all areas of the boiler and furnace. The manufacturing companies knew from the very beginning that the proper design and installation procedures for their package boilers were critical.

Each boiler design has unique characteristics with the proper calculation of the bril materials to keep their installation costs down in order to be competitive on the market. On a long-term investment the package boiler owner knows the bril materials will keep the boiler operating at peak energy efficiency. With maintenance scheduling and using proper material selection and installation procedures, the boiler will be energy efficient. Only proper upkeep will minimize the amount of heat loss that radiates from the outer casings or lagging surfaces.

Since these boilers are shop assembled it’s critical to know how to repair them. Knowledge of the bril designs is necessary if you intend to fix or maintain them.

Brick and Tile

The firebrick or tile used in the package boilers are either a high duty or super duty quality and will be classified or specified by the PCE testing number referred to in ASTM C-64 method C-24. An insulating type firebrick will be classified by its temperature limits. A high duty firebrick will have a PCE of 31-32 and a super duty firebrick will be 33-34. Firebricks (high duty or super duty quality) are used for the brick walls, for baffling of gas flows inside the furnace, or for protecting the floor tubes. Insulating firebrick will come in temperature ranges from 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit (F) to 3,000 degrees F and the choice will depend on the area of usage.

Brick or tile (high duty, super duty or insulating) will always be laid-up with an air setting mortar unless it’s used on a floor in two or more staggered layers. It will then be laid dry. The brick or tile is dipped in mortar slurry that has been thinned with water to a gravy-like consistency, shaken to remove excess mortar, and then tapped into place with a mallet. Such joints are usually between 1/16 inches and 3/32 inches thick. Diamond saws are used to cut brick to fit exactly. Bricks are bedded in mortar for two purposes: to cause the bricks to adhere to each other and to distribute the pressure uniformly over the whole bed where the bricks are irregular. Great care should be taken that both the bed and the cross-joints are thoroughly filled with mortar.

Refractory

There are three basic types of refractory (dense, medium and lightweight). All three types use the same common chemicals, yet each will vary considerably to meet their specific use requirement. Some of the most common chemicals for refractory materials used in the boiler industry today are alumina, silica, ferric oxide, titanium oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and alkalies. Any and all of these basic refractory materials are used to prevent gas and fire from escaping from the boiler-furnace.

Once you have selected a material based on the operating conditions to which the refractory material is to be exposed, you must consider the installation of the material before your final selection is made. Each refractory material has some unique qualities and some refractory material can only be installed in one particular way. Before you finalize your material selection, it’s important to pay attention to the material installation. Avoid trying to use a single castable for all types of service. There’s no universal castable. When replacing old refractory material, it may be a mistake to automatically use the same material as the original. It’s better to examine the reasons for failure and adjust the selection accordingly. Ask yourself: Did the material spall due to thermal shock? Has it shrunk due to temperatures above its use limit? That gouge may indicate mechanical abuse. If the surface appears "glassy," this may be due to operation at temperatures above the use limit. The old lining may offer several good clues.

Most problems with refractory materials can be traced to improper mixing, curing, or drying. Attention to the five following points, however, should produce a serviceable lining.

Amount of Water

The right amount of water is essential. True, a wetter mix handles more easily, but it robs the refractory material of its needed strength. On the other hand, if the mix is too dry, it’s difficult to place, and it may set to a weak, porous, "popcorn" structure. A proper mix will usually seem on the thick side compared with conventional concrete. One good guide to follow when troweling refractory is the "ball-in-hand" test. Make a small ball of castable and toss it 12 inches into the air. If it breaks apart when it lands on your flat palm, it’s too dry. If it flattens out, it’s too wet. The ball should retain its size and approximate shape for the mix to be right.

Type of Water

Many common industrial compounds can easily contaminate a refractory mix, and seriously affect its end properties. Certain salts, for example, react with the binder to make it useless. Be sure to use clean water, clean mixing and handling equipment and clean forms. Also, it’s best to use potable water because it’s free of the minerals normally found in tap water. Those minerals could affect the ability of the castable from reaching its proper strength.

Mixing

Though mixing can be done by hand or in concrete mixers, mortar mixers usually give the best results. They are geared to handle fairly thick mixtures. Hand mixing and concrete mixers often require excess water. On big jobs, use two or three mixers to provide a continuous supply of fresh castable. Refractory materials all have a "pot life." Pot life refers to the amount of time after the material is mixed that it’s still good to use at a location. This will vary from castable to castable and can be anywhere from 20 minutes to 60 minutes. Three or four minutes mixing time should be plenty with a mechanical mixer to insure a uniform and homogeneous mixture. The high iron aluminous cements and pure calcium aluminate cements generally have considerably faster setting time than those of calcium silicate (Portland) cements. Over mixing tends to speed up the setting rate and weaken the refractory material. Remixing should never be done.

Temperature

Cold weather will adversely affect the strength of the refractory if the dry material used is in the freezing range of temperatures, and if mixed with cold water. It’s desirable that both the dry material and the water be in a temperature range of 60 degrees F to 70 degrees F if maximum strength is a consideration. Provisions should be made to maintain a minimum ambient air temperature of 50 degrees F when placing refractory materials. At the same time, any steel that will come into contact with the refractory should be maintained at a temperature not lower than 50 degrees F. The freshly installed castable should be protected against freezing for a minimum of 48 hours or until thoroughly dried. When the temperature is below 50 degree F, the maximum strength of the material can be improved by heating the mixing water.

Curing and Drying

It’s only after the refractory has been cured and dried will the refractory be capable of doing what it was designed to do.

  • Curing is the process of keeping the refractory material wet or the surrounding atmosphere humid for a period of at least 24 hours after installation. The primary purpose is to create the most favorable conditions for the completion of the chemical reactions of the cement. Curing results in improved strength.

  • Dry out is the process of drying out the cured refractory material by the use of heat. The dry out process is very important in the refractory application to assure that the refractory reaches its full strength. Unlike the curing of refractory, which is done right after the installation (by the installing contractor), the dry out is done later with no set time limit when it has to be done. However, this doesn’t apply to phosphate-bonded refractory materials, since a phosphate-bonded material must be cured and dried at the same time. A phosphate-bonded material must be cured and dried within the first two to three weeks after installation because a phosphate-bonded material will begin to absorb moisture from the surrounding atmosphere. Eventually, over a period of two or three weeks the material will begin to slump and fall off.

Insulation

Close attention should be made to the boiler design and the type of insulation used. Some package boilers with an outer casing were designed to compress the insulation (i.e. fiberglass 4 inches thick compressed to 3 inches thick). Knowing this before you substituted a different insulation material for the fiberglass (say a mineral wool type), you would have to run a thermal calculation program, check the thickness of the new insulation so that it fits into the space between the tubes and the outer casing, and check the compressibility of the new type of insulation if maintaining the same original thickness.

The outer casing or the lagging is designed for certain temperature limits and was based on a specific design criteria. It will be important to know those original design requirements (i.e. outer surface temperature, saturated water temperature, external wind velocity, emissivity factor, ambient air temperature) before any change of the insulating material is used.

Lagging

Where outer lagging is required on a package boiler it will be attached to a support or structural system by the use of fasteners. Fasteners for attaching lagging should be at the least a #14 stainless steel screws zinc plated, self tapping and/or self-drilling with a weather seal neoprene washer. Sheet metal screws should be applied on every other rib, regardless of the material involved (steel or aluminum). On flat sheets, sheet metal screws should be applied on no greater than 2-foot vertical by 3-foot horizontal centers. Common sense should prevail in the use of screws. Excessive numbers are costly and detract from appearance. The lagging screws are installed properly when they are pulled down (screwed) tight. A screw is considered "loose" when you can wiggle the washer with your fingertips.

Health and Safety

When removing or installing brick and refractory, be aware of the chemical composition of the existing materials. Some refractory materials used contained chromium compounds as part of the refractory mixture. During operation some of the chromium compounds would be converted into hexavalent chromium (CR+6). What this means is that the refractory material, when initially installed, didn’t represent a health problem. However, during the operation, some of the chromium compounds may be converted to CR+6. Therefore, when the refractory material is removed, the dust created may transport the hexavalent chromium. Inhaling the CR+6 increases the risk of lung cancer and may also cause other health hazards.

Brick or tile often contain crystalline silica. The Environmental Protection Agency found that crystalline silica, when converted to dust, presents a potential health hazard if inhaled over a period of years. During brick installation the dust, called silica dust, is created by the use of power saws when cutting the bricks. Silica dust is a serious and potentially fatal health threat. To prevent this, one should use, wherever possible, wet saws to cut the brick. Also, respirators should be used and ideally, exhaust fans should be installed for proper air ventilation.

Insulation, like refractory and brick, require special handling during removal or installation. Always check the material safety data sheets before installing or handling insulation material. Any insulation material that contains crystalline silica greater than 0.1 percent by weight requires a cancer warning. The fibers that make up any glassy or vitreous filaments are extremely sharp and can cause skin and upper respiratory irritation. The skin irritation can be caused if the broken ends of the ceramic fibers become embedded in the skin. Breathing dust from such products and materials may cause lung damage or an upper respiratory irritation. The upper respiratory irritation is a reaction by your body to the sharp ends of the broken fibers.

In years past, insulation was manufactured using an asbestos base material. Asbestos insulation materials have been classified as a carcinogen. Special attention and careful removal practices must be adhered to for health and safety reasons. Your maintenance, purchasing, and supplier records, along with your original insulation specifications, should be reviewed to determine whether and/or where the asbestos containing products were used.

Conclusion

Brick, refractory, insulation, and lagging, when designed and installed properly on a package boiler used in a medical, industrial, college, or government facility will help to assure the boiler is operating at peak efficiency. If the bril materials are improperly designed, specified, stored, installed, cured, dried, or removed it will have an adverse affect on three important factors:

  • energy usage and energy savings.
  • efficient boiler operation.
  • your financial bottom line.
NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Pipe Insulation Support Saddles

Thermal piping systems require mechanical support in nearly every application, the lone exception being direct burial piping applications. In almost all other applications, a hanger or other support device is required to secure the pipe at its point of attachment to the structure that the piping is crossing or servicing. The methods used to support thermal piping all seek to provide structural rigidity to the system. Whether or not this comes at the expense of thermal efficiency is a critical difference between the methods. We will examine some of the more common ways of dealing with the issue of support and thermal efficiency at clevis hangers and roller support locations in thermal piping systems.

Traditional Support Methods

Insulated piping installed in clevis hangers in commercial applications is generally supported by a pipe insulation protection shield (also known as saddles) of dimensions sufficient to keep the insulation from being crushed in the support area. Originally slightly more than a half- cylinder of sheet metal (see figure 1), these shields remain largely unchanged with a few notable exceptions from certain manufacturers.

The shield’s function is to distribute the load forces created by the loaded pipe (plus valves, flanges, strainers or other items) and the insulation that exists between support locations over a larger insulated surface area than would be present in the bare clevis hanger without a type 40 shield. The support spans are usually governed by project specifications (or Manufacturers Standardization Society Standard Practice [MSS SP-69, table 3 or table 5]). MSS SP-69 states accepted maximum spans for assemblies using certain types of hangers, with spans as short as 6 feet for small bore pipe, and as long as 20 feet for large bore pipe. Spans are often determined by the location and availability of structural members to hang or attach a support. Because of this, they can vary from the numbers in MSS SP-69 table 3 or 5 by a considerable margin.

In theory, the dimensions of type 40 shields or saddles are controlled by the MSS SP 58, Table 5, for type 40 shields. MSS SP-58 is based upon protection of insulation having a compressive strength of 15 psi, which is a higher compressive strength than that of many common insulation materials. Insulation types such as low density fiberglass and most elastomeric foams are "softer" than 15 psi.

The length and gauge of the shield (saddle) is determined by pipe size, not by insulated outer diameter (see figure 1.1). To compensate for an insufficient shield length and insulation compressive strength, the insulation materials will often receive inserts such as support plugs or blocks, constructed of a high-density material such as wood. These plugs and blocks become the load-bearing components of most field-fabricated saddle assemblies for cold applications. They do possess good load-bearing properties, but these items aren’t efficient insulation materials. They create a compromise between compressive strength and thermal performance. In reality, the requirements for most projects fall short of the dimensional standards shown in MSS SP-58, table 5. They’re viewed by many as being in excess of what’s actually necessary to provide proper performance. Typically, only U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects have strict standards resembling the dimensions of MSS SP-58 table 5.

Treatment of Piping

Insulated piping installed on roller hangers or supports require a different treatment. It typically receives a heavy duty weld-on shoe-type support saddle (MSS SP-58 type 39 or Grinnell figure 164 – figure 166) to prevent crushing of the insulation in the roller contact area. (Grinnell [now Anvill] product "figures" are commonly used in project drawings as detail items for clarification purposes. They are common call-outs for mechanical contractors.) The insulation is generally butted against this steel support and carefully worked around the legs to the greatest extent possible (see figure 2). The metal-to-metal contact in the support area causes poor thermal performance and is impossible to seal completely. It has undeniable structural superiority, but this comes at the expense of thermal performance and condensation control.

Unchecked condensation will drip to surfaces below the support, lead to corrosion of the metallic support components and ultimately contribute to premature component failure. Even when material specifications call for wooden support saddles (Grinnell Figure 179 wood insulation saddle) on chilled water lines, the thermal conductivity and condensation issues need to be addressed. Wood and steel are fine building materials for structural purposes, but they offer less than reasonable insulation value and thermal performance. They seem to be inherited from one project specification to the next, allowing the problem to continue.

The metallic support items (type 40 shields and type 39 saddles) described so far are versatile and non-specific as to temperature range. They’re widely accepted for both hot and cold applications. They leave the issue of insulation performance more to the installer, instead of the designer or specifier. Some may argue that the total amount of piping subject to poor insulation performance from traditional hanger treatments is insignificant. This isn’t a valid argument if we’re dealing with a cold system. A small area subject to water vapor penetration will cause a large problem if left unchecked. The best way to treat this problem is through a proactive materials selection process. By being proactive, you can solve the problem with preventive action.

A basic division of intended applications should occur at this point: Is the application hot or cold? Cold applications receive far more attention than do hot because of the obvious condensation control issues on cold piping, versus visually undetectable heat loss issues on hot piping. A simple high-density mass insulation insert (calcium silicate or perlite) in the support area is sufficient for most hot piping applications. Heat loss in hot piping systems can have notable economic impact and create personnel protection liability, but it still doesn’t attract the attention that heat gain receives in cold piping systems.

The Role of Insulation Compressive Strength

The higher the compressive strength of the insulation, the shorter the support saddle has to be to carry a particular load. A saddle supporting 50 psi compressive strength foam insulation in a clevis hanger can be shorter in length than a saddle supporting 24 psi compressive strength foam insulation. How much shorter depends on two factors; the specified support span (per MSS SP-69 and American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM B31.1]) and the resulting load for the support (span load). The span load is determined by the total weight of the pipe, filled with water, covered with insulation and metal jacketing, per linear foot, multiplied by the footage between supports. Additional loads such as valves and flanges must be added to the span load calculation. Of course, smaller diameter pipes have lighter span loads than do larger diameter pipes. Safety factors can be applied here as well, such as using schedule 80 pipe and 3 inch thick 14# pound per ft3 PCF density insulation for all calculations. This is the baseline load number for the span.

The maximum load per type 40 saddle is based on the length of the saddle in inches, multiplied by the compressive strength of the insulation in psi, times one-third of the insulated outer circumference. This is usually a much greater value than the span load. The percentage difference between the maximum load per saddle and the pan load is called a safety factor. Individual project requirements vary widely, so no widely adopted uniform standard for insulation support saddles exists. There have been numerous field expedients applied over the years, and many of these have evolved into products developed out of requests from the field.

The previously mentioned calculations are necessary to perform if correct support is critical. However, they can be left to those who manufacture insulated saddles and design each saddle for a particular application and load range.

Modern Alternative Support Methods: Starting a Proactive Program

Manufactured insulated saddles (also called pre-insulated saddles or insulated pipe supports) are offered in response to the needs of designers, owners and installers seeking a better way to treat the challenging conditions which exist at the pipe hangers and supports within any thermal system. Traditional thermal insulation systems for piping have concentrated primarily on straight runs of piping. Numerous thermal leaks were left at hanger and support locations because of a lack of well-designed products to use at these locations. Trade-offs between compressive strength and thermal performance in the saddle area are common with field-insulated saddles, but are eliminated with manufactured insulated saddles.

With a variety of insulation types ideally suited for conditions within a particular temperature range, insulated saddles offer the correct insulation for each application. Insulations for most cold applications are 3# minimum density rigid polyisocyanurate (cellular glass can also cover this temperature range, but it lacks significant compressive strength) for the wide range of temperatures between minus 100 degrees Fahrenheit (F) and 250 degrees (F). High strength calcium silicate and perlite are typically best for high-temperature applications from 250 degrees (F) through 1,200 degrees (F). Because it’s a hydrous mass insulation, using calcium silicate on cold applications isn’t recommended. Attempts can be made to "waterproof" calcium silicate with silicones or other compounds, but it remains a poor choice for below ambient applications due to its thermal performance at this temperature range.

The support saddle often falls under the mechanical contractor’s scope. It’s also commonly included in the insulation sub-contract. The insulator then has to fill in the saddles with support blocks, insulation, mastic, and/or vapor barrier jacket. This is time consuming, to say the least. After these steps are taken, the final fit and adjustment of the hanger is still the responsibility of the mechanical contractor. The insulated saddle speeds up the total installation process for the insulation contractor and thus accelerates the turnover and billing cycle, along with eliminating a notorious punch-list item from the end of the job.

Benefits of Insulated Saddles

Insulated saddles are a complete composite assembly, allowing for fast and simple installation. They require significantly less labor to install than a field-assembled support system with separate insulation, support inserts, vapor barrier and support saddle.

Insulated saddles save energy because they improve thermal performance by improving thermal efficiency at hanger locations. Saddles for cold applications should have a 360-degree section of properly selected high-performance foam insulation. This feature reduces operating costs for the entire life of the thermal system. The insulation should feature a longitudinal lock-joint seam where possible, to provide a longer offset thermal path to the cold pipe surface.

All cold service saddles should have a minimum 6 mil thickness film vapor retarder unless ASTM E84 compliance requires a laminated foil based all service jacket type barrier. This feature should incorporate a self-sealing-lap. Selection of a high-performance vapor retarder reduces the likelihood of condensation problems, and the damage to buildings that can result from condensate leakage.

The 180-degree steel saddle used to support the assembly should be flared at both ends to provide maximum insulation (and vapor barrier) protection at all hanger locations and be constructed of highest quality rust-resistant G-90 galvanized steel (or type 304 stainless steel alloy where required) in 22 through 12 gauge thickness, depending on pipe size to provide positive hanger security and aid in rapid installation.

Bare hangers with the notorious metal-to-metal contact problems, or improperly installed field-insulated shields and supports, can compromise the thermal integrity of an insulated piping system. By leaving a large amount of under-insulated surface area, traditional methods and materials can increase operating and maintenance costs over the lifetime of the system, especially on cold piping. A properly selected insulated saddle will insure superior thermal performance at every hanger and support location. In addition to increasing thermal performance, it also saves expensive labor by reducing installation time. This is because every component is pre-assembled in its place and ready to perform; for the most part, no additional materials such as staples or adhesives are required to finish the job. No matter which trade jurisdiction the pipe saddles fall under, insulated saddles are available for smart designers, owners and installers.

Insulated saddles allow insulation to pass uninterrupted through the support area on roller supports for both hot and cold piping, creating a sealed thermal system where the traditional design (with the weld-on shoe-type saddle shown in Figure 2 or wood type saddles) prevent this efficiency from occurring. These saddles can carry a very high load in comparison to their weight, labor savings and thermal efficiency. For this application, insulated saddles should always have a heavy gauge steel (12 gauge minimum) support saddle, plus a structural steel support plate (1/4 inch thick minimum) for 6 inch pipe and larger, to distribute the load from the pipe to the roller over the saddle area.

The user should contact the insulated saddle manufacturer to verify that the product choice is appropriate for the application. Project specifications can sometimes be confusing, or even inappropriate. Forwarding a copy of the job specification to the manufacturer is always a good idea if the user has any questions.

This paper has discussed what can be inside a support location, what’s probably inside a support location and what should be inside a support location. Whether your applications are below ambient temperature cold piping, such as chilled water or above ambient temperature such as steam piping or condensate, there is an appropriate insulated saddle to fit your needs.

Figure 1.1

MSS-SP 58, Table 5, for type 40 shields.

Pipe Size (inches) Shield Length (inches) Saddle Gauge
.25 – 3.5 12 18
4 12 16
5 – 6 18 16
8 – 14 24 14
16 – 24 24 12
Table 5 is based upon 15 psi compressive strength insulation. For compressive strengths other than 15 psi dimensions may be adjusted accordingly.
NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

National Insulation Training Program

At a January 2002 session of the National Insulation Association’s (NIA) new National Insulation Training Program (NITP) in Houston, attendees were asked why they thought it was important to attend this type of comprehensive training program. In response, Jeff Hartzell, vice president of sales/marketing for GIS Inc., said, "I’m new to the industry and don’t have a place to go for concentrated education regarding insulation."

Another participant, Sapan Shah, mechanical engineering specialist at ABB Lummus Global, concurred, "I come from a mechanical engineering background-I have a bachelor’s and master’s degree and in none of my courses anywhere have I learned about insulation." Hard to believe in today’s energy conscious environment-but typical of the kind of comments heard in Houston.

Program Is First of a Kind

It was precisely the lack of any organized training that led NIA’s Foundation for Education, Training and Advancement to develop the NITP-a program that the Houston class attendees agreed "has been needed for a very long time." Up until now, there has been no other place or organization within the thermal insulation industry that offered a truly unbiased way of looking at the engineering, application and maintenance of insulation systems.

"Our industry stopped holding training programs about 20 years ago," explains William Pitkin, NIA executive vice president. "Other than direct contact with sales people, we’ve made it difficult for individuals to become more knowledgeable about insulation technology."

Unbiased Look at Insulation Systems Design

The core goal of this new 2-day training program is to provide professionals across all market segments and job functions with a working knowledge of insulation and insulation systems design that can help avoid costly mistakes that result in system failure and injury to plant personnel. The concept is to make the process of designing, specifying, and installing insulation quicker and easier. The program provides tools developed and proven by experts, to make designing and specifying insulation systems easier and more accurate. The tools make the job of engineering insulation systems easy-once you know how to use them.

Developed by a number of industry experts, the program is presented by a cadre of instructors who understand real world conditions and challenges. While insulation manufacturers have provided assistance in course development, the program is unbiased and strictly focused on maximizing the potential of people and technology. Participants receive 1.5 continuing education units for attending the program.

Not Just for Newcomers

While Jeff Hartzell and Sapan Shah are newcomers to the industry, the program is also intended for people such as Dean Cox, manager for national accounts and technical services at Knauf Fiber Glass and a veteran of more than 25 years in the insulation business.

"I would also recommend to the ‘old guys’ that they attend," said Cox. "It will give them the opportunity to visit with others, discuss their problems and possibly see how others have treated similar problems and possibly improve upon their own ‘old practices.’"

For industry newcomers, learning the fundamental characteristics of heat flow, the way heat transfers from one medium to another, and how heat flow through insulation is measured, is essential. This "insulation science" is covered at the very beginning, setting the foundation for the rest of the course.

While a discussion on "What is insulation?" "How does it work?" and "Why do we insulate?" may be very basic for some, the Houston discussion proved to be a welcome refresher for the more experienced attendees. Energy consultant Riyaz Papar saw the value of seeing things from a different perspective, saying, "While I personally knew the science, design and engineering concepts because I have specified insulation in process industries, this class made me think in ways I would not have thought of before."

Program Has Broad Appeal

The training program is designed to appeal to anyone involved in any way with insulation systems, regardless of job responsibility or level of experience, including: building systems specialists, mechanical engineers, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems specialists, plant managers, facilities engineers, specifiers, systems designers, estimators, specification writers, and sales representatives.

Jack Irvin, sales manager at Specialty Products and Insulation, commented on the diversity of the Houston class.

"In all my years in the insulation business, this is the first program that I know of that involved the participation of engineers, general contractors, insulation contractors and representatives of the insulation material manufacturers," he said.

While Papar would recommend the class for "people who do insulation design, specification and application," he also thinks that "contractors, distributors and sales representatives would …benefit tremendously …and be better able to provide a better product to their customer."

Why Training Is Important

While insulation is "applied" every day, it’s rarely "engineered" into the system and subsequently doesn’t perform to its maximum potential-or deliver the expected return on investment. Insulation systems include more than the insulating materials themselves and, like other engineered systems, the correct combination of components is vital to all aspects of performance. This is where the training provided in the NITP class becomes critical. Unless insulation is correctly engineered and installed, neither the insulation nor the process can perform to capacity. The result is condensation, corrosion under insulation, equipment and process failure and energy loss and money lost, to name several.

Program Uses Available Tools

Through a series of six different modules or segments, attendees learn how to use the tools and resources provided in the class to engineer the right insulation system for a particular application. The segments are presented in a sequence that begins with fundamental principles and drills down into the details of product selection, system design, thickness determination, specifications, and system maintenance. Segments are augmented by breakout sessions and class exercises.

Commenting on the value of the breakout sessions, Chris Gerd, territory manager for Johns Manville Corp., said, "I went into the class knowing very little about industrial facilities and how to insulate them. By the time we did the group breakouts and worked through the information we received I gained a lot of confidence and a tremendously greater understanding of not just how to insulate an industrial facility, but a lot of the long and short term concerns that need to be addressed to do the job the right way."

Systematic Process

Engineering a system correctly is a systematic "process"-one that depends on selecting the right components for the application. Attendees learn to go through the process step by step, finding out how to select the right insulation product, at the right thickness, with the right protection and finish (all the while making sure it’s suitable for the environment to which it will be exposed). Attendees also learn to consider installation requirements and inspection and maintenance procedures to assure the long term performance of the system.

An essential component of the "process" is establishing selection criteria before choosing an insulation product. Learning how to prioritize criteria is a critical element of the program’s systematic approach to proper insulation design.

Reinforcing Insulation Benefits

Because facility/plant managers and building owners are generally unaware of the role insulation plays in their facility or process, they often don’t view it as a critical component. One of the program’s goals is to make attendees aware of the benefits and tremendous savings potential of a well-engineered insulation system.

"The information explaining payback to anyone who improves their own insulation systems is a must for every insulation maintenance person, operating engineer and owner," said Cox. "Not only will they hear how they can reduce operation cost and greenhouse gases, they get the tools necessary to document and justify the thermal insulation improvements in their plants."

"In standard engineering curriculums," added Papar, "we do not pay much attention to insulation other than when we are doing heat transfer problems and typically it’s used with an R-value and that’s about all. But this course proves and answers the basic question WHY INSULATE?"

The course uses actual case studies that reinforce the benefits of insulation and answer the question: WHY INSULATE?

Reduces Energy Costs

Insulation on bare process lines and equipment can reduce the energy lost by as much as 95 percent.

Enhances Process Performance

By reducing heat loss or gain, insulation maintains process temperature at its predetermined value.

Reduces Emissions

If energy is being saved, then all of the pollution associated with the generation of that energy is also saved.

Protects Personnel

Insulation reduces the surface temperature of piping or equipment to a safer level.

Reduces Noise Levels

Insulation is used to encase or enclose noise generating sources and reduce noise to acceptable levels.

Maximizes Return on Investment

Insulation is one of the few technologies where the payback for the investment is considered more than acceptable when compared to many other equipment maintenance purchases.

Along with raising awareness of the benefits of insulation, the program is designed to raise the awareness of insulation professionals themselves and their role in energy conservation. Attendee Brett Stone, technical sales representative at C.E. Thurston & Sons, emphasized that point when he said of the program, "It helps you understand the positive impact that an insulation professional can have on energy consumption, efficiency, and emissions."

Determining the Right Insulation Thickness

How much is enough? Learning how to determine the appropriate insulation thicknesses to accomplish the critical performance criteria for various mechanical, processing and equipment applications is an essential part of "engineering" an insulation system. Through a hands-on exercise, program participants become familiar with the comprehensive 3E Plus® software program tool which determines the right thickness for the application in just a few keystrokes. The 3E Plus® program also provides a financial analysis and/or justification for the need to insulate. The tool allows you to quantify and weigh the risks versus the benefits by providing data to answer questions such as:

  • How much will the insulation system save? (Btu and dollars)

  • How much will be lost by choosing not to insulate?

  • What is the return on investment?

  • What is the impact on emissions reduction?

  • What is the impact on the process?

  • What is the impact on personnel safety?

"The exposure to the 3E Plus® software was great," said Hartzell. "I found it interesting and know it will be a valuable tool for me to use in providing my clients with the proper insulation for their needs."

Installation Considerations

Attendees come to this segment of the program having identified all of the criteria necessary to put together an insulation system. In addition, they have selected the "right" insulation and determined its thickness. However, as attendees soon find out, it’s at this point that communication problems can develop. Many times, what the specification says may not really apply in the field-or the designer hasn’t considered installer or application issues that can affect performance of the specified system.

Accurate installation, however, is critical to performance. During this segment, attendees become familiar with the MICA and Process Industry Practices (PIP) tools which illustrate the correct application of all kinds of insulation systems. The purpose of using the illustrations is to visualize for the specifier, installer and inspector the correct application of materials on specific installations. This segment also includes an installation demo and discusses the various materials and accessories available.

"I liked the concept of people actually getting a chance to see the different types of insulation materials available in the market," said Papar. " It’s a very hands-on, touch and feel type of class. We need to have more of this in our industry."

The Specification Process

At this point in the program, attendees understand that insulation is a time tested and proven technology and that they have the sophisticated tools to make life easier. Now comes the hard part-getting them to change their old habits. The instructors stress that pulling out an old specification and "dusting it off" hoping it’s good enough just won’t work. In this segment, attendees become familiar with the resources available for writing specifications, including industry standards, manufacturer’s data, master and guide specifications, and a specification development software program. Hartzell said particularly liked this segment of the program.

"Through the group exercises and with the direction of more seasoned industry professionals, I was able to gain valuable knowledge in the area of writing specifications," he said.

Importance of Maintenance

Insulation systems generally require very little maintenance if designed and installed correctly. The vision and hope of the program developers is that if an insulation system fails it will not be because of the wrong insulation selection or a specification or design that was not clearly communicated. Because insulation systems do deteriorate over time and eventually need repairs to restore them to the condition they were in when first designed and installed, attendees need to understand the importance of maintenance. In this segment of the program, they learn how to:

  • examine how systems fail.

  • become familiar with maintenance indicators and how to inspect insulation systems.

  • decide on the appropriate maintenance actions for insulation system materials.

  • appreciate what it takes to manage multiple insulation systems.
Comments Heard at the Houston Program

At the end of the 2-day program in Houston, participants arrived at a much better appreciation of the science and engineering behind the selection, specification and installation of insulation. Irvin was very enthusiastic, saying, "The overall knowledge gained is tremendous and will benefit each individual from the point of specifications through to the installed finished product."

Bill Brayman, president of Brayman Insulation Consultants, liked the content of the program: "The accuracy of the topics was excellent and did not favor any one insulation or accessory manufacturer while presenting positive enhancements of energy savings through the use of many different types of industrial insulation systems."

Wayne Scott, Sr., inspector-pressure equipment for Shell Deer Park Refining, said, "I now have a better understanding of several important facets of insulation systems."

And Gary Kuzma, senior vice president for HOK, weighed in on the class materials, "…an excellent resource…(will) make a great contribution to my resource library for future use."

Daniel King, branch manager for Specialty Products and Insulation, summed up the two days this way: "This program… will bring much needed awareness to the importance of insulation systems. Soon, industry professionals will better understand the ‘Power of Insulation’ and the role it can play in today’s energy conservation efforts."

Figure 1
Figure 2
NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Insulation Climate

The U.S. economy has entered uncertain times. After an unprecedented decade of prosperity, the country is now in a recession. Closer to home, what does the economic downturn mean to the commercial and industrial insulation industry? Representatives from each of the six National Insulation Association regions were asked to assess the economic climate for the industry in 2002. A number of factors were addressed, including general business prospects, year-on-year comparisons, strong and weak areas, challenges and potential opportunities in a number of areas. Their views are presented on the following pages.

Central States Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association

When looking at his region’s prospects for 2002, Jim Gribbins, president of Gribbins Insulation Co. in Evansville, Ind., sees some bumps in the road.

"The central states region, not unlike the rest of the country, will feel the effects of a slowing economy that started in 2001 and was compounded with the events of Sept. 11," he said. "The degree of impact remains to be seen. Certainly some areas of our business will be affected more than others, but it’s safe to say that the overall pie will shrink resulting in smaller pieces for everyone."

A number of sectors have been affected by the slowing economy, said Gribbins.

"The commercial and light industrial markets have been most affected by the events of late," he said. "Office buildings in particular are being put on hold until developers acquire the confidence that had them building at record levels the past few years. Small manufacturers are making do with what they have and not improving and upgrading as they have in the past few years."

However, Gribbins notes several positive developments.

"Utilities continue their effort with pollution control equipment and gas fired peaking units," he points out. "With the number of power generating facilities in our region and neighboring states, this work will be steady for years to come. Other industries in our region, from pulp and paper to pharmaceutical to aluminum and steel will all likely slow in their capital improvements while continuing their ongoing maintenance efforts."

In terms of challenges, labor remains a common theme. An image problem is becoming a major obstacle, said Gribbins.

"The labor shortage will continue. The lack of respect given the construction industry by educators has worsened over the years to the point that young people view a construction worker job as undesirable and something they may settle for if nothing else is available," he said. "Our ability to attract a quality work force will not improve unless some radical changes are made in the way our industry is presented to individuals entering the job market. Now, more than ever, with the degree of emphasis on safety and quality we must find a way to improve the sophistication of the construction worker."

While he doesn’t see a drastic downturn for the region, Gribbins, as he did previously, offers cautionary words.

"Contractors working in the central states region will likely experience a slight reduction of business in 2002," he said. "With our proliferation of power generating plants and the continued development of gas peaking units, the impact on us should be less severe perhaps than other regions. But rest assured, the pie representing mechanical insulation contracting in the central states region will be reduced.

Southeastern Insulation Contractors Association

H. Vaughan Privett, chairman and chief executive officer for C.E. Thurston & Sons, Inc. in Norfolk, Va., thinks 2002 could be a surprisingly strong year, at least in the mid and south Atlantic states (Virginia and the Carolinas).

"We feel encouraged for 2002 even though it’s predicted to be a slow year," he said. "Some people I’ve talked to feel ‘this year’s sales is next year’s budget’ is aggressive. Two areas we focus on are the power industry and the marine markets. With deregulation of power being phased in over the next few years, we believe there is opportunity. Virginia alone is announcing construction of six new power plants, which is a big opportunity for contracting and distribution. We believe Virginia Power, Duke Power and CPL are not sitting still, but preparing to challenge competition with pricing and service."

Privett said the maritime industry has been active and opportunity may present itself.

"The marine business, basically the shipyards, have gone through two major mergers," he points out. "These were Southwest Marine purchasing NorShipCo, and Northrup Grumman purchasing Newport News Shipbuilding. The doors are open for more aggressive ship repair and new carriers, not to mention the local naval shipyard facilities, which should pick up in light of national defense."

Maintenance projects could also provide business for insulation companies in the region, said Privett.

"It’s felt that the industrial base business has undergone many mergers and downsizing over the last five years, and will be moving forward to upgrade existing plants for the more competitive future," he said. Privett also stresses that, "our budget for 2002 will be conservative, but our marketing plans will be aggressive."

Western Insulation Association

It looks as though the best description for 2002 in the western region is "steady," according to Jim King, vice president of Hudson Bay Insulation Co. in Seattle.

"There’s a lot of plan spec work in Washington right now," he adds. "Also, it looks as though there is a potential for a significant amount of power plant/refinery work in the mix since these people have put off a lot of work in the last three years. Oregon is waiting for the ‘tech rebound’ with a few jobs around. California is ‘moderately busy,’ but nothing like the past. Utah, Arizona and Nevada, are all down a little bit, with Utah being down the most since all of the Olympic venues are built. Alaska has a smattering of work, but is awaiting more energy projects."

Compared to a year ago, King said, "I think there will be pockets of areas that will be busy, but overall I see things as about the same."

When looking at "up" and "down" areas within the industry, King points out a couple that come to mind.

"The industrial market definitely seems on its way up," he said. "The design build market, of which there was a lot of work the past five years is way down, and everything else is about the same."

King sees good potential for business in plants and facilities throughout 2002.

"I see this area as opportunity thoughout the region, as many of these facilities have ignored maintenance for the past three years," he points out. "We have seen an upturn in maintenance and upgrades lately as many have in the western region."

King also sees opportunities in the power and energy sector in 2002 after a somewhat slow year in 2001.

"There wasn’t much going on in 2001, but a lot of facilities need to upgrade and are finally realizing this. A lot of new work is in the mix for the next three years."

Other areas seem to be more of a wild card, according to King.

"High tech is down, but will respond quite strong and quick if the stock market and indicators dictate," he said. "Pharmaceutical is really starting to expand with office and manufacturing. Other work is steady."

King said that materials and workforce issues don’t seem to be as much of a problem as in other parts of the country.

"So far materials don’t seem to be a problem," he said. "Labor is okay with some shortages, but doesn’t seem to be a factor like in the South and Ohio Valley. The biggest problem here is the early retirement of skilled individuals with the union’s ’30 and out’." King does say that hiring of skilled labor is something that has to be addressed.

King sees several other trends on the horizon for 2002.

"One of the big challenges is going to be the insurance/bonding markets," he said. "Insurance companies are leaving the insulation market in droves and the bonding climate has changed and will continue to change dramatically. The small independent businesses are facing some challenges. The converse of that is there seems to be a tremendous amount of consolidation, which is decreasing competition in some areas."

Midwest Insulation Contractor’s Association

Bob Anderson, senior estimator for NYCO, Inc. in Inver Grove Heights, Minn., is cautiously optimistic about business in the upper midwest region that’s covered by the Midwest Insulation Contractors Association.

"Our forecast looks a little lower but still good," he said. "Manpower is still an issue [mainly from the union side] and even the merit shops are having a hard time. Here in the Twin Cities [Minneapolis and St. Paul], we don’t see a slowdown until the third quarter of ’02, if at all."

Compared to a year ago, Anderson doesn’t see too much difference.

"It’s probably about same," he said. "Speaking for the Twin Cities, there are a couple of pockets that have slowed down. The reports we’re getting indicate that the private sector may slow down. It will be the weaker area. A lot of design builds are on hold, but they may rebound by the second or third quarter. The government [especially schools] might pick up some of the slack."

Anderson said he doesn’t see any major developments in areas such as plants and power and energy. Both challenges and opportunities exist in providing appraisal and reinsulation services.

"It’s frustrating at times," he said." People say ‘we don’t have the money’ to make changes from our recommendations. Still, I think there is some opportunity and potential there in the long run."

Anderson thinks the overall prospects for 2002 hinge on how things develop in the early part of the year.

"Most contractors have a nice backlog of work," he said. "It’s up to us to get the work in February and March. Again, a lot of that depends on how things are going in the private sector and with government work."

Southwest Insulation Contractors Association

How does the southwest region look for 2002?

"The chemical, petrochemical and refining market segments will continue to be slow for the first half of the year," replies Jim Getgood, president of Industrial Specialists Inc. in Richwood, Texas, adding, "The second half appears as though it will improve a little. New power plants are being built all over this area and this is supposed to continue through 2002."

Comparing this year to last, Getgood said, "2002 will be about the same as 2001 or down some. We don’t see a decline of greater than 10 percent in our markets." He said the health of regional insulation businesses seems to be affected equally by market conditions in the industries previously mentioned.

When asked to describe trends in operations and in plants, Getgood expressed some worry, saying, "The owners are continuing to find methods to reduce their costs. Online bidding and reverse auctions seem to be the currently methodology being employed by some business."

Labor has been a concern with many in the industry, and Getgood doesn’t disagree.

"Labor has been and will continue to be our greatest challenge," he said. "Our industry has failed to keep pace with the economy and wages have not increased to a level that attracts the next generation into our crafts."

However, Getgood does see opportunities in other areas.

"Our business continues to improve as our markets demand more from us," he points out. "Our ability to respond to changing market conditions sometimes provides a competitive advantage."

While technology has certainly made life easier in many respects, Getgood said he is sometimes concerned that its rapid growth sometimes cancels out any gains it provides.

"The information age has nearly brought business to its knees," he said. "More information makes for more scrutiny, more questions and ultimately the inability to complete the work. We are challenged to provide more details that much of the time increases our administrative costs with very little value added to the project."

Eastern States Insulation Contractors Association

Asked to assess prospects for his region in 2002, Paul Stonebraker, president of TRA Thermatech in Beltsville, Md., said he expects things to be "busy" to "very busy," with the exception of upstate New York.

Compared to 2001, Stonebraker said "all areas will be busier" in 2002. When asked to assess areas that are stronger now compared to this time a year ago and vice versa, he said, "It’s mostly commercial and technology that are stronger in the majority of areas, except New England, where industrial is stronger with commercial down slightly."

In terms of trends, Stonebraker said maintenance would range from steady to slightly down, with power and energy up slightly and that educational construction will be on the upswing in upstate New York.

Labor shortages loom as a potential challenges or problem areas in the region, said Stonebraker. Another issue is contract negotiations in areas where things are busy. He also said, "Material pricing is on an upward trend after a long period of minimal or no increases." Conversely, Stonebraker said he sees opportunities in firestopping and lead abatement.

Overall, he said, "Opportunities are increasing in educational construction, health care and research. The challenges exist in upcoming labor negotiations and creating interest in our trade as a career."

NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Corrosion Under Insulation: The Inspection process

Corrosion under insulation has become more critical in the industry for a number of reasons. For one, the industry as a whole has become more complex. Chemical, petroleum and food processing facilities, to name a few, require more sophisticated equipment, instruments and piping arrangements (see figure 4). Piping and equipment are more difficult to insulate, requiring highly skilled professionals. Corporations are reducing their staff and their budgets. Cost cutting is putting inspections and maintenance in jeopardy.

These events can lead to a premature wet insulation system and eventually external corrosion to the pipe or equipment. Detecting corrosion under insulation (CUI) prior to serious damage or failure to the process system is imperative. With the current strict environmental laws, a process spill or failure can lead to legal ramifications.

Each year millions of dollars is spent in correcting the failure of pipe and equipment as the result of external CUI (see figure 15). This situation shouldn’t be surprising, since 95 percent of the failures go undetected until the product begins to seep through the insulation system into the ground or floor.

Reviewing Corrosion’s Principles

Before we discuss the inspection process of corrosion, it’s necessary to review corrosion’s basic principles. There’s no formula that will tell us actually the corrosion rate under insulation, but we do know that wet insulation systems accelerate the process. Uninsulated carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel can be exposed for years to all kinds of weather with only a noticeable film of surface corrosion on the substrate. Field testing to measure corrosion rate of various metals has been performed around the world under all types of environmental conditions. This information will tell us what materials corrode least under certain conditions, but they don’t tell us what happens under insulation in the same environment.

Insulation systems provide the perfect environment for corrosion promotion. The physical characteristics of insulation materials can vary widely. Some insulation materials contain a leachable inhibitor to neutralize the Ph in the water. Some insulation types may not be hygroscopic. All of these features should be considered when selecting an insulation material for a specific project. However, this may only delay the inevitable corrosive process if no periodic inspection and corrective action is taken. After a number of years investigating corrosion failures under insulation, it’s apparent that no insulation or insulation system is exempt from external corrosion to the substrate.

Fireproofing’s Contributions

Fireproofing materials must be included as a contributor to a wet environment that promotes corrosion. Fireproofing materials also function in part as insulation between the critical structural steel and a potential fire. Not only is fireproofing applied to structural steel on buildings, but also on support legs and skirts of vessels and tanks. The same consideration must be made for the wet carbon steel surface under the fireproofing material and corrosion prevention. Moisture can enter a fire proofing system just as it does with insulation systems.

Several years ago, we removed fireproofing from structural steel columns on a building located near an ocean. We found that the steel columns facing the ocean had actually corroded so badly that removing pieces of rusted scale left unsafe supports. It only took a few years for the salt (sodium chloride) in the atmosphere to cause this catastrophic condition (see figure 16).

It must be assumed that every insulation and fireproofing system is subject to failure and thereby can promote corrosion. There are certain conditions that must be present. The insulation system must be exposed to moisture. The moisture may be created on a cold operating system by condensed vapor or it may simply be exposed to the weather. In any case, moisture must be present to induce corrosion.

Temperature/Corrosion Correlation

There may be a correlation between the operating temperature of the system and the rate of corrosion. At an operating temperature below 212 degrees fahrenheit (F) (100 degrees celsius [C]), the substrate may be constantly exposed to moisture. With a hotter operating system, the moisture will return to the substrate when the system is shut down for maintenance. This also takes place where there is a cycling process. This moisture is suspended in the insulation by an outer jacket that prevents it from evaporating, and a temperature above boiling at the substrate. When the operating temperature is reduced, the moisture heads for the substrate.

The definition of corrosion according to ASTM Standard G15-93 Standard Terminology Relating to Corrosion and Corrosion Testing is, "The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of material and its properties."

General or uniform corrosion is when no particular location or area of the metal surface is more susceptible over another. However, what we usually see under insulation is localized corrosion. This area may have some special feature, a defect in the metal such as a crevice, or stress in the metal adjoining a weld line. This location becomes more susceptible to corrosion when enclosed in an insulation system. The geometry of the insulated pipe and equipment surface exacerbates the condition. They are complicated by interruptions where moisture can collect.

The two most common materials used for producing pipe and equipment in industry is carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel. Insulated aluminum and copper, both non-ferrous materials, can corrode as well, and require inspection per this article. However, we will limit our detail discussion to the most common materials.

Corrosion to carbon steel (mild steel) usually is observed as pitting and eventually scales (see figure 6). This corrosion can occur at any temperature, which allows the moisture to accumulate on the insulated substrate. Sulfides and all types of chlorides are the leading contaminants in moisture, usually in the form of rain.

Oxygen is an important ingredient in promoting the electrochemical reaction for corrosion. Corrosion is substantially reduced on systems operating bellow freezing. Moisture in the form of ice reduces the oxygen from contributing to the corrosive activity. Generally, where there is water (aerated), there is oxygen. At a chemical plant site, a study was performed on the corrosion rate of steel under insulation. As the temperature of the wet carbon steel surface under the insulation rises, the corrosion rate increases. However, at temperatures above approximately above 175 degrees F (80 degrees C) the corrosion rate begins to decrease from a decrease of oxygen in the water (see figure 1).

Corrosion to austenitic stainless steel may be observed as intergranular, pitting or crevice, but the greatest offender is chloride stress corrosion cracking (CSCC). Solutions of magnesium, sodium, zinc, calcium, ethyl and lithium chlorides are some of the most aggressive of these.

The conditions to induce CSCC in insulated stainless steel are as follows:

  • operating temperature between 120 degrees F (49 degrees C) and 300 degrees F (149 degrees C)

  • oxygen to feed the electrochemical reaction

  • water (domestic or rain)

  • metal stress (caused be the fabrication process)

  • austenitic stainless steel (non-ferric type- low in carbon)

Most CSCC failures occur when the operating temperature is between 120 degrees F (49 degrees C) and 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Chlorides accumulate in a localized area from the continual migration of moisture containing the chlorides. The accumulation can vary from 1000 parts/million (ppm) to 20,000 ppm that can initiate CSCC. Depending on the geographic location, rain can contain from 75 ppm to 375 ppm chlorides.

Based on investigative reports for the past 20 years, there’s a direct relation between greater incidents of corrosion in highly industrialized areas in the United States. CSCC can happen on hot water or steam condensate lines or equipment.

Identify CSCC by random hairline cracks. The cracks will be irregular and difficult to see. Clean the surface to the bare metal. Then wipe a red food dye on the surface. Where cracks are present, the dye will be absorbed into the cracks, making them visible (See figure 5).

Stress is induced on any rolled pipe or formed equipment that has a cylindrical configuration. The shaping of the metal sets up the inner stresses. In addition, welding the metal sets up higher stresses in the weld area. Stress relieving the pipe and equipment would eliminate the potential problem, but the process is very costly.

Austenitic stainless steels, types 304L and 316L, are the most commonly used stainless steels in industry and are also susceptible to CSSC. The ferric stainless steels, 400 series, will be observed more as carbon steel, with pitting and crevice corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion has occurred where stainless steel is exposed to galvanized steel jacketing. It happens mostly on stainless equipment that’s insulated and jacketed with galvanized steel. This jacketing is more commonly used outside the United States and therefore this is where most incidents occur. The zinc chlorides leach out of the galvanized jacketing and work their way around and down to the equipment shell. Vertical equipment nozzles, located on the heads, provide the best avenue.

There’s only one way to determine that corrosion under insulation is under control. That is by setting up a proper inspection program.

Develop a checklist similar to the following:

  • Identify those areas and/or processes on the site that have insulated pipe and equipment.

  • Check the environment of the area where the insulated pipe and equipment is located. A field check is usually necessary. Rate the geographic areas by category (from category numbers 1 to 4). Mark a plot plan drawing or a sketch of the site.

    1. the most critical conditions, where moisture is constantly present, and contaminants, such as acids, caustics and chlorides.

    2. represents an area that’s only exposed to the weather (If the site is in a heavy industrial area and/or near the coast [salt water], it may be a category 1.)

    3. an area that’s sheltered from the weather but may occasionally be hosed down.

    4. indoors, in a dry area where only process or utility leaks are a consideration.

  • Find some history of the insulation work and the age of the insulation system. Many companies have records and drawings that provide this information. Rate the age of the insulation by category, from A to C. Use this category as a suffix to the environmental categories.

    A. an insulation system 15 years old or greater. (the life of an insulation system).

    B. an insulation system 7 to 15 years old (system can fail in this age span if not maintained).

    C. an insulation system less than 7 years old (shouldn’t fail if installed correctly).

  • Identify the insulation materials on the pipe and equipment. Some insulation materials are more hygroscopic (retain moisture) than others. By identifying wet insulation, this will aid in the inspection for corrosion on the substrate. However, insulation may not be hygroscopic, such as cellular glass. Pockets of moisture may also exist between the insulation and the substrate non-hygroscopic insulation. This is why the identification of specific locations for inspection are critical since corrosion can be very localized.

  • Determine the operating temperature of the insulated pipe and equipment. This information may also determine if the insulation system is wet and thus promoting corrosion. As noted previously, a hot operating system may prevent moisture from reaching the substrate, but this doesn’t mean that the insulation is dry. These systems should be inspected while they are shut down, to prevent a personnel safety problem. The inspector could be burned during the inspection process. While the process is operating, the inspector can determine the insulation surface temperature with an infrared instrument. The exact surface temperature isn’t critical, but a temperature above 140 degrees F (60 degrees C) should indicate poor thermal efficiency, which is usually caused by wet insulation.

First consideration should be given where the process temperatures cycle or the process is shut down for several months or more. The second area of concern should be given to operating systems in the range of 300 degrees F (149 degrees C) to 32 degrees F (0 degrees C).

Setting up areas and conditions by priority, the most severe can be identified for immediate inspection, while the least critical areas can follow.

For example: 1A on a plot plan or sketch will identify an old insulation system that has probably failed in an area constantly exposed to moisture and corrodents. This pipe and/or equipment require immediate inspection. This inspection program is only a guide. Users may wish to develop their own program to suit their particular requirements.

Inspection Location

The inspection process should be documented. Piping and equipment on chemical and petrochemical sites are currently inspected for internal erosion of the wall thickness by ultrasonic methods. Inspectors pinpoint certain locations on the pipe and equipment where the greatest erosion can take place. Likewise, we should perform the same procedure for the inspection of external corrosion under insulation and fireproofing. The inspections must be performed methodically with a time schedule.

The following identified locations are typical where wet insulation, the accumulation of moisture and, subsequently, corrosion can be found.

Insulated Piping

For insulated piping, inspect:

  • at the bottom of the lower elbow on a vertical line.

  • at the bottom or near tees for branch lines.

  • at the bottom or near horizontal piping where instruments or pipe hanger supports protrude through the insulation system (see figure 12).

  • at the bottom of horizontal lines where water or rust stains on the circumferential seams of the jacketing indicate that moisture had leached out from the wet insulation.

  • above valves and flanges on vertical lines.

  • at any break of the vapor retarder on cold lines, such as a line passing through a fire wall.

  • any location where the degree of difficulty in applying insulation on pipe and equipment is high and therefore, failure is predictable (see figure 13).
Insulated Vessels and Tanks (see figure 2)

For insulated vessels and tanks, inspect:

  • on vertical vessels and tanks, above the intermediate insulation support rings (see figure 14).

  • around the base of the tank, at the base plate, orienting the inspection 90 degrees apart (see figure 9).

  • near large vessel and tank nozzles and manholes, especially where the insulation jacket has visibly shifted from the nozzle (see figure 10).

  • at the bottom of horizontal tanks where water or rust stains on the circumferential seams of the jacketing indicate that moisture had leached out from the insulation.

  • at the outer edge of the roof, orienting the inspection 90 degrees apart. (This depends on the design of the vessel and tank roof and the presence of an insulation support ring or angle.)

  • under any structural steel legs for platforms, protruding through the insulation at the sidewall or roof (see figure 11).

  • under protruding vessel nameplates.
Fireproofing of Structural Steel Columns and Vessel Skirts

For fireproofing of structural steel columns and vessel skirts, inspect:

  • near the base of the steel column. (Be sure to inspect the web if it is a beam.)

  • at the angular cross bracing attached to the column.

  • at the skirt access opening on skirted vessels.
Inspection Procedure

Here are some inspection procedures to follow.

  • Use non-destructive methods to inspect.

  • Don’t proceed to cut or saw a hole in the insulation for inspection and seal it with duct tape or some other haphazard method. If the insulation is dry, you want to keep it that way (see figure 7).

  • There are a variety of NDT port assemblies to select from. These port assemblies will provide easy access for inspection on a periodic program. In order for the port assemblies to seal out moisture, they must be installed exactly in accordance to manufacturer’s instructions (see figure 8).

  • Use the largest available size inspection port assembly for the application. They are generally available in sizes of 1-1/2 to 5 inches in diameter. For small piping the port size must be small but on large piping and vessels use a large port assembly. The larger port provides easier visual inspection.

  • Before sealing the port, fill with the existing or new insulation. High-temperature blanket insulation is suitable for re-inspection purposes (see figure 3).
General Inspection Tips
  • Develop a scheduled method of inspecting.

  • Identify the physical characteristics of each insulated pipe system and equipment.

  • For carbon steel, check for pitting and scaling.

  • For stainless steel, check for stress corrosion cracking.

  • Identify critical locations on pipe and equipment for inspection.

  • Document the condition of the substrate, such as no corrosion, mild corrosion or severe corrosion.

  • Document condition of the insulation, such as dry insulation or wet insulation. Schedule the replacement of wet insulation.

  • Re-inspect on a yearly basis.

Where new insulation systems are to be installed, consider a proper coating system. This information on coatings can be found in NACE publication Standard RPO198-98 Item No. 21084 or by contacting the author of this article.

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NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Affirming Insulation

" . . . cold and heat . . . summer and winter . . . shall not cease."

– Genesis 8:22

"Warmth, warmth, more warmth! for we are dying of cold and not of darkness."

– Miguel de Unamuno

The Tragic Sense of Life

The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) and its member companies have promoted, with steadfast confidence, the usefulness and safety of its insulation products since the 1930s. The industry’s faith in its fiber glass and rock and slag wool ("man-made vitreous fibers" or "MMVFs") insulation products has never wavered. Even in 1987, when the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) identified MMVFs as a "possible human carcinogen," the industry retained its same message of assurance: "Fiber glass, rock wool, and slag wool products are safe to manufacture, install, and use when recommended work practices are followed."

That 1987 IARC opinion on a cancer risk associated with MMVFs is now history.

On Oct. 16, 2001, after reviewing all available studies and publications addressing man-made vitreous fibers, a panel of leading, international medical and scientific experts appointed by IARC concluded their health and safety evaluation of these fibers by re-classifying MMVFs from a Group 2B category ("possibly carcinogenic to humans") to a Group 3 category ("not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans").

IARC based its decision upon the evidence of "Epidemiologic studies published during the 13 years since the previous IARC Monographs review of these fibers in 1988 provide no evidence of increased risks of lung cancer or of mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational exposures during manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any cancer risk [emphasis added]." Other fibers reviewed in 1988 retained their original classification. IARC further stated that "…the more commonly used vitreous fiber wools including insulation glass wool, rock (stone) wool and slag wool are now considered not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3)."

IARC’s decision marks a historic victory for the industry because it affirms what NAIMA and its members have been saying for years and continue to say today.

A Firm Foundation Supported Industry Confidence

While NAIMA enthusiastically applauds IARC’s reclassification of MMVFs, the agency’s action is no surprise in that it’s in sync with conclusions reached by scientific groups in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Holland, Australia, and New Zealand that concluded, in the past five years, that MMVFs don’t pose a cancer risk to humans. For instance, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found in 2000 "no significant association between fiber exposure and lung cancer or nonmalignant respiratory disease in the MVF manufacturing environment."

The abundant information relied upon by these reviews appeared in print as early as 1930, when research on man-made vitreous fibers found an absence of any chronic adverse health effects in man. By 1942, initial investigations conducted by Dr. W.J. Siebert on fibrous glass manufacturing workers demonstrated "no respiratory disease could be attributed to inhalation of fibrous glass." Studies from the 1950s and 1960s corroborated the findings of earlier research efforts. In 1977, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) conducted an extensive investigation into the health and safety of fibrous glass home insulation and concluded that scientific evidence did not support a finding that inhalation of fibrous glass home insulation posed "an unreasonable risk of injury from cancer," and, therefore, the commission declined to regulate fiber glass and found that "a mandatory safety standard was unnecessary."

MMVF insulation products rank as one of the most thoroughly tested building materials in use today. More than 60 years of research by government and independent research organizations supported the statements made by industry that MMVFs are safe when manufactured, installed and used following recommended work practices. This ongoing product stewardship sustained the industry’s confidence in its products and established that workplace exposure to respirable fibers consistently registers below 1 f/cc and airborne fibers in insulated buildings are not significantly different from the level found in the outdoors or in uninsulated buildings.

With this substantial scientific database as a backdrop, in 1999 NAIMA partnered with the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to form a voluntary Health and Safety Partnership Program. As a result of this partnership program, OSHA removed MMVFs from its list of priorities.

Health Benefits of MMVF Insulation Products

Medical professionals identify a home as a critical element in gaining and persevering good health: "A house should protect its occupants from extremes of heat and cold, moisture and dryness" and maintain "a comparatively constant interior temperature."

Such an indoor climate, doctors reminded patients, was attainable due to the "development of a lighter wall with some good insulating material in it." Modern insulation proved so fundamental to good health that the Modern Medical Counselor in 1945 urged readers to follow this advice: "If modern insulating materials are used in the building of a new home, it will be better protected against the extremes of heat and cold and will conserve fuel." Dr. Hubert Swarthout’s book even featured a photograph of MMVF insulation being installed. Insulation, Swarthout advised, also reduced vermin, insects, and germs. The health benefits derived from a controlled indoor climate provided yet another rationale for NAIMA’s unwavering confidence in MMVF products.

Surviving Weather and Climate

Plagues once brought a blight upon humanity, but even Black Death itself stopped when even slight improvements in housing generated "spectacular results" to human health, argues William McNeill, professor emeritus of history at the University of Chicago. Housing, due to its insulating concepts, helped to end epidemic contagions: "Invention of clothing and housing did the trick, insulating the human body from extremes of climate and assuring survival despite freezing temperatures." Weather injures normal and diseased people more, according to cardiology studies, "than all air and water pollution combined." Indeed, cold ranks as the gravest threat to the body.

In her fascinating book, "Freezing Point," Lucy Kavaler explains that "man has not evolved in ways that help him to endure the cold. . . he has been battling cold as if it were an enemy for all history."

Cold kills people even today. Heat kills people, too. Technology eventually achieved stabilized temperature control with the development of efficient insulation, which, according to historian James Burke, came with the breakthrough discovery of glass fiberization, that led, ultimately, to the creation of "glass wool, an extremely light-weight insulation blanket." As history and literature document, insulation played a pivotal role in bestowing comfort and well-being upon the human race.

Cold Kills

In 1860, a Washington, D.C. woman wrote: "I can no more stand cold weather than can a tomato plant." Indeed, "[m]an as a species has not developed a race that can naturally survives in cold regions. Only technology has enabled him to do so." Technology prevents heat loss by providing insulation [like] "[f]eathers and furs . . . match the processes that would . . . carry heat away from the body. In houses man has done the same thing by walls, fiber insulation, and storm windows."

In Dr. Stephen Rosen’s, "Weathering," he explains how the body "rel[ies] upon unconscious behavioral thermoregulation – . . . But body temperatures above 110 [degrees fahrenheit] or below 82 [degrees fahrenheit] for extended periods of time can inactivate thermoregulation and prove fatal."

A striking illustration of Rosen’s statement, occurred in the early 1960s in Great Britain when fatalities among elderly and infants rose sharply enough for the British Ministry of Health to appoint a special committee to investigate. In its 1964 report, published in the British Medical Journal, the committee’s findings attributed all deaths to accidental hypothermia. Accidental hypothermia differs from the hypothermia caused when a victim is stranded in Antarctica. In contrast, accidental hypothermia claims its victims within the walls of their own homes. The age of the victims also contributes to accidental hypothermia, because "old people are… vulnerable to cold… and many… lay unprotected for long periods in cold rooms."

Infants suffer similar susceptibility, as a 1932 report from President Hoover’s Commission on Home Buildings stated: "We recommend particularly that investigations be made upon the relation of housing to infant mortality . . ." In short, dwellings occupied by the victims lacked capacity for sustained temperatures needed to maintain proper body warmth. Without equivocation, the committee blamed indoor exposure to cold as cause of death.

The Ministry of Health’s recommendations centered on implementation of measures that would correct loss of heat from a room. To achieve temperature stability, the committee recommended that flats and apartments install insulation in attic spaces to attain a persistent room temperature. In a follow-up article, "Cold the Killer," to the committee’s official report, British Medical Journal editors characterized cold’s deadly toll as a "medical emergency" and demanded social and governmental intervention: "The old people should be given help, with insulation of their houses and provisions of warm clothing and fuel, by official or voluntary services and should themselves be warned of the danger."

Before modern innovations in home construction, the cold threatened everyone, not just the aged and new-born, as illustrated in Willa Cather’s classic American novel, "My Antonia," with its depiction of pioneers fighting nature’s brute force in Nebraska, where "man’s strongest antagonist is cold." Not complaining, just stating the facts, one pioneer remarked that "[n]ext to getting warm and keeping warm, dinner and supper were the most interesting things we had to think about. Our lives centered around warmth and food." Securing warmth remained elusive for many as exemplified by a farm house where wintry winds whipped beneath door seams and through wall crevices, and burlap bags stuffed between the cracks and crannies to stop glacial-like air proved fruitless as temperature dropped to deadly degrees.

Heat Kills

Hot climates present mankind with hazards almost as lethal as cold. Indeed, torrid temperatures prove fatal to mankind with regularity as even today heatstroke stalks the inhabitants of the upper half of the Mississippi River region, where more lives have been taken by heat-related injuries than in any other location in the world. While medical dissertations reveal that "heat is much more difficult at the two extremes of life, making the elderly and babies most susceptible to heat," American soldiers fighting overseas during World War I and World War II succumbed to the heat with regularity.

After both world wars, the Medical Department of the U.S. Army prepared an extensive evaluation of all heat-induced medical problems-hospitalized illnesses and death-in an effort to prevent such devastating losses if future American military conflicts arise in tropical climates. In the report, the Army recognized that a shelter, where cool temperatures might abound, could have circumvented both sickness and death affiliated with over-exposure to heat during both World Wars. Once again, insulation protects against climate’s extremities.

Energy Efficiency Equals Better Health

Energy-efficiency technologies contribute towards reducing pollution-sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming and sulfur dioxide constitutes a major component of acid rain, so insulation possesses the capacity to diminish the threat of climate change and reduce health risks linked with acid rain.

In addition, air pollutants provoke allergic symptoms, and exacerbate respiratory distress among asthma sufferers. Asthma is on the increase among people who live in urban areas because of the intensified levels of airborne pollutants and allergens. Air pollution has also been linked to emphysema, hay fever, other respiratory ailments, headaches, constricted breathing passages, or health hazards that remain hidden from medical knowledge. Scientists suggest exposure to pollutants can worsen existing health conditions, and, combined with all other factors, accelerate disease and allow air toxins, like arsenic, to accumulate in the body and contaminate the blood stream.

Insulation use decreases the emission of pollutants with dramatic results. Insulation currently in place in U.S. buildings alone reduces the amount of carbon dioxide emissions by 780 million tons each year. A savvy environmentalist, Paul Hawken, stated that "ceiling insulation and double glazed windows can produce more oil than the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge at its most optimistic projections, at about one-twentieth the cost, with four times the employment per unit of energy converted versus the energy consumed by burning it."

In a study conducted by the Alliance to Save Energy, Hawken’s optimism gains authentication: "10,444 Btu’s of energy are required to produce one pound of insulation. One pound of insulation saves 125,3289 Btu’s of energy per year." Hawken’s "The Ecology of Commerce" justified heavy reliance upon energy efficiency because present efforts have eliminated "hundreds of billions of tons of pollution from the air, ground, and water, and improved health world wide."

MMVF insulation products earn the lion’s share of credit for energy savings and pollution reduction, because, as A.M. Watkins states in "The New Complete Book of Home Remodeling, Improvement, and Repair," of the many types of insulation, fiber glass and mineral wool are the most common. And "the most recommended." Watkins justifies his praise by listing distinctive attributes embodied in fiber glass and mineral wool: "high performance rating . . . inorganic . . . naturally fire resistant, rot proof, bug resistant, versatile, and not high priced."

Insulation Noise Absorption Offers Health Benefit

Scientists have linked "sensations of sound" to negative impacts on human health. When President Hoover’s Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership published its report, experts pinpointed noise as a injurious presence that needed resolution: "Noise has a detrimental effect upon health, and houses should be so constructed as to minimize" the noise. Indeed, psychological and physiological ailments results from noise that disturbs peace and quiet and prevents restful slumber or loss of sleep and inflicts stress related diseases upon its victim. Medical sources support the conclusion that sustained exposure to noise is contributing factor in impaired hearing chronic fatigue, neurasthenia, increase blood pressure and decreased working and mental efficiency.

That explains why acoustical expert Paul Close stated that there "is ample justification for classifying noise as an occupational hazard along with gases, fumes, dust, toxic liquids, and bacteria."

MMVF insulation absorbs noises that cause detrimental health effects. In fact, specialists in acoustical problems recommend insulation as an effective tool for reduction of sound through walls, floors and ceilings and absorption of reverberations. The result is improved health, yet another insulation health benefit resulting in NAIMA’s confidence.

Final Thoughts

Insulation transformed standards of comfort and living for all classes, and has ushered a comfort and well-being that historians call "a tremendous advance" for humanity. Health and happiness are closely related, and it would be difficult to deny that a more varied diet, better protection against cold and damp (indoors and out) and cleanliness have been facilitated by modern technology and are directly responsible for happiness as well as health.

Certainly, the impact of technology is clearly apparent in the realm of architecture, structures made to control the natural world for the benefit and, ultimately, for the survival of humanity.

MMVF insulation products, the preferred insulation choice for decades, have not only been extensively used, but have been extensively studied, researched, and scrutinized. Now, supported by IARC’s significant landmark decision, NAIMA and its members reassert its consistent message once again:

"Fiber glass, rock wool, and slag wool products are safe to manufacture, install, and use when recommended work practices are followed."

NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Looking Ahead

Over the past year, energy markets have been extremely volatile, with high prices for oil and natural gas and concerns for energy shortages earlier in the year giving way to an economic slowdown and lower prices following the September terrorist attacks in the United States.

Those events are incorporated in the short-term projections by the Energy Information Administration in its Annual Energy Outlook 2002 (AEO2002), but long-term volatility in energy markets isn’t expected to result from their impacts or from the impacts of such future events as supply disruptions or severe weather. AEO2002 focuses on long-term events, including the supplies and prices of fossil fuels, the development of U.S. electricity markets, technology improvement, and the impact of economic growth on projected energy demand and carbon dioxide emissions through 2020.

The AEO2002 projections assume a transition to full competitive pricing of electricity in states with specific deregulation plans. Other states are assumed to continue cost-of-service pricing, and the projections include recent delays in restructuring plans in several states. Problems in California have slowed the trend to restructuring, and retail access in the state has been suspended. The projections include the contracts entered into by California to guarantee its electricity supplies, leading to higher electricity prices than in the Annual Energy Outlook 2001 (AEO2001). Increased competition in electricity markets is also represented through changes in the financial structure of the industry and efficiency and operating improvements.

World oil prices remained relatively high through most of 2001, largely due to actions by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and some non-OPEC countries to restrain oil production. U.S. natural gas prices achieved record levels in 2001 due to a cold winter and tight supplies, caused by reduced drilling in response to low prices in 1998 and 1999. Electricity prices also reached record levels in California, as a result of restructuring difficulties, tight natural gas markets, low hydroelectric generation levels, and other generation problems. Energy prices began to decline later in 2001, however, in response to the slowing economy and more normal supply markets for natural gas and electricity.

Economic Growth

Although there was an economic slowdown in the United States in 2001, in the long term the U.S economy, as measured by gross domestic product (GDP), is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 3 percent from 2000 to 2020, similar to the rate of 2.9 percent projected in AEO2001 for the same period. Most of the determinants of economic growth are similar to those projected in AEO2001, but there are some differences. For example, commercial floorspace is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 1.7 percent through 2020, as compared with 1.2 percent in AEO2001. The AEO2002 projection has a significant impact on energy demand in the forecast for that sector and is more consistent with recent historical trends.

Energy Prices

The average world oil price is projected to decline from $27.72 per barrel in 2000 (2000 dollars) to $22.48 per barrel in 2001, before beginning a gradual increase after 2002. In 2020, the projected price reaches $24.68 per barrel, as compared with $22.92 per barrel projected in AEO2001, largely due to higher projected world oil demand. Because of the effectiveness of OPEC in managing oil production and the generally slow response of non-OPEC supply to higher world oil prices, projected prices in the years following 2002 remain higher than in AEO2001.

World oil demand is projected to increase from 76 million barrels per day in 2000 to 118.9 million barrels per day in 2020, higher than the AEO2001 projection of 117.4 million barrels per day, due to higher projected demand in the United States and developing countries, including the Pacific Rim and Central and South America. Growth in oil production in both OPEC and non-OPEC nations leads to the relatively slow growth of prices through 2020. OPEC oil production is expected to reach 57.5 million barrels per day in 2020, nearly double the 30.9 million barrels per day produced in 2000, assuming sufficient capital to expand production capacity.

Non-OPEC oil production is expected to increase from 45.7 to 61.1 million barrels per day between 2000 and 2020, 1.7 million barrels per day higher than projected in AEO2001, due to higher projected production in the Caspian Basin, offshore West Africa, and Brazil. Production from the Caspian Basin is expected to exceed 6.5 million barrels per day by 2020. By 2010, projected production in Brazil will reach nearly 2 million barrels per day and in the offshore regions of West Africa it’s expected to exceed 2 million barrels per day. North Sea production is expected to peak in the middle of the current decade, reaching 7.5 million barrels per day, with a slower decline rate than earlier expected. By 2010, oil production in Mexico is expected to increase by 30 percent above current levels.

The average wellhead price of natural gas is projected to increase from $3.60 per thousand cubic feet in 2000 to nearly $4 per thousand cubic feet in 2001, then decline sharply in 2002. The price is expected to reach $3.26 per thousand cubic feet in 2020, slightly higher than the projection of $3.20 per thousand cubic feet in AEO2001. Although projected natural gas demand in 2020 is 1 trillion cubic feet lower than was projected in AEO2001, the price is expected to be higher due to a less optimistic assessment of natural gas reserves discovered by exploratory drilling. As the expected demand for natural gas increases over time, price increases are slowed by technological improvements in natural gas exploration and production. The transmission and distribution margins to electricity generators are projected to be higher than in AEO2001, under the assumption that generators will pay higher rates to guarantee pipeline capacity, particularly as natural gas is expected to be used more for baseload and intermediate- load generation.

In AEO2002, the average minemouth price of coal is projected to decline from $16.45 per ton in 2000 to $12.79 per ton in 2020, slightly lower than the price of $12.99 per ton projected in AEO2001. Higher projected demand in AEO2002 is met by increased production from lower cost western mines. Through 2020, the price is expected to decline with increasing productivity in mining, a shift to western production, and competitive pressures on labor costs.

Average electricity prices are projected to decline from 6.9 cents per kilowatthour in 2000 to 6.5 cents per kilowatthour in 2020, higher than the 6.1 cents per kilowatthour projected for 2020 in AEO2001, due to higher projections for natural gas prices, electricity demand, particularly in the commercial sector, and natural gas margins to electricity generators. Electricity industry restructuring contributes to declining projected prices through reductions in operating and maintenance costs, administrative costs, and other costs. Electricity prices are projected to decline to 6.3 cents per kilowatthour by 2006 then rise in the last five years of the forecast as natural gas prices rise. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission actions on open access and other changes for competitive markets enacted by some state public utility commissions are included in the projections, but because not all states have deregulated their electricity markets, the projections don’t represent a fully restructured electricity market.

Energy Consumption

Total energy consumption is projected to increase from 99.3 to 130.9 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) between 2000 and 2020, an average annual increase of 1.4 percent. In 2020, this forecast is nearly 4 quadrillion Btu higher than in AEO2001, primarily due to higher projected energy demand in the commercial and transportation sectors. The projections incorporate efficiency standards for new energy-using equipment in buildings and for motors mandated through 1994 by the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987 and the Energy Policy Act of 1992, including the new residential and commercial equipment standards.

Commercial energy demand is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 1.7 percent, reaching 23.2 quadrillion Btu in 2020, 2.4 quadrillion Btu higher than in AEO2001. Commercial floorspace is projected to grow by an average of 1.7 percent per year, as compared with 1.2 percent per year in AEO2001, raising the demand for energy for many end uses in the commercial sector. The January 2001 equipment standards have a smaller impact in the commercial sector than in the residential sector. The most rapid increases in demand are projected for computers, office equipment, and telecommunications and other equipment.

Industrial energy demand is projected to increase at an average rate of 1.1 percent per year, reaching 43.8 quadrillion Btu in 2020, slightly higher than in the AEO2001 forecast. Industrial gross output is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 2.6 percent; however, the growth is partially offset by an average projected decline in industrial energy intensity of 1.5 percent per year. Contributing to this decline is a continuing projected shift to less energy-intensive industries. The average annual growth in non-energy-intensive manufacturing is expected to be 3.3 percent, compared with 1.2 percent for energy-intensive manufacturing.

Transportation energy demand is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 1.9 percent, to 39.6 quadrillion Btu in 2020, 1.1 quadrillion Btu higher than in AEO2001. The projected energy demand for light-duty vehicles and heavy trucks is higher in AEO2002, because a re-evaluation of recent trends in both travel and efficiency indicates more rapid growth in travel and slower growth in efficiency. In 2020, projected efficiency for new cars, new light trucks, and heavy trucks is lower by 0.8, 0.9, and 0.6 miles per gallon, respectively, than in AEO2001.

Electricity demand is projected to grow by 1.8 percent per year from 2000 through 2020, the same rate as in AEO2001; however, demand is 2 percent higher in 2020. The most rapid growth is expected for computers, office equipment, and a variety of residential and commercial appliances and equipment.

Demand for natural gas increases at an average annual rate of 2 percent, from 22.8 to 33.8 trillion cubic feet between 2000 and 2020, primarily due to rapid growth in demand for electricity generation. Total natural gas demand is projected to be 1 trillion cubic feet lower than in AEO2001, due to lower projected residential and electricity generation demand, offset in part by higher projected commercial demand.

In AEO2002, total coal consumption is projected to increase from 1,081 to 1,365 million tons between 2000 and 2020, an average increase of 1.2 percent per year. This projection is 68 million tons higher than the AEO2001 projection due to higher projected demand for electricity generation, which constitutes about 90 percent of the domestic demand for coal.

Petroleum demand is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 1.5 percent through 2020, led by growth in the transportation sector, which is expected to account for more than 70 percent of petroleum demand in 2020. Projected demand in 2020 is higher than in AEO2001 by 830 thousand barrels per day due to higher transportation demand.

Renewable fuel consumption, including ethanol for gasoline blending, is projected to grow at an average rate of 1.7 percent per year through 2020, primarily due to state mandates. Nearly 55 percent of the projected demand for renewables in 2020 is for electricity generation and the rest for dispersed heating and cooling, industrial uses, including cogeneration and fuel blending. The projected demand for renewable fuels in 2020 is 0.7 quadrillion Btu higher than in AEO2001, mainly due to higher use of biomass for industrial cogeneration and increased generation from geothermal and wind energy.

Energy Intensity

Between 1970 and 1986, energy intensity, measured as energy use per dollar of GDP, declined at an average annual rate of 2.3 percent as the economy shifted to less energy-intensive industries and more efficient technologies in light of energy price increases. With slower price increases and growth of more energy-intensive industries, intensity declines moderated to an average of 1.5 percent per year between 1986 and 2000. Energy intensity is projected to continue to decline at an average annual rate of 1.5 percent through 2020, as continuing efficiency gains and structural shifts in the economy offset growth in demand for energy services.

Energy use per person generally declined from 1970 through the mid-1980s, increasing when energy prices declined. Per capita energy use increases slightly in the forecast, with efficiency gains only partially offsetting higher demand for energy services.

Electricity Generation

Generation from natural gas, coal, and renewable fuels is projected to increase through 2020 to meet growing demand for electricity and offset the projected retirement of some existing fossil-fuel-fired and nuclear units. The projected levels of generation from power plants using coal, nuclear, and renewable fuels are higher than in AEO2001 due to higher projected electricity demand, assumed improvements in the operating costs and performance of nuclear plants, and higher natural gas prices, which reduce natural-gas-fired generation relative to AEO2001. The share of generation from natural gas is projected to increase from 16 percent in 2000 to 32 percent in 2020, and the share from coal is projected to decline from 52 percent to 46 percent as a more competitive electricity industry invests in the less capital-intensive and more efficient natural gas generation technologies.

Nuclear generating capacity is projected to decline from 2000 to 2020, but a reevaluation of the aging related costs for nuclear plants and the expectation of higher natural gas prices lead to a higher projection than in AEO2001. Nuclear plant retirements in the forecast are based on the cost of maintaining operation compared with the cost of new capacity. Of the 98 gigawatts of nuclear capacity available in 2000, 10 gigawatts are projected to be retired by 2020, as compared with 26 gigawatts of retirements in AEO2001. No new nuclear plants are expected to be constructed by 2020 in the reference case, based on the relative economics of alternative technologies.

Renewable technologies are projected to grow slowly because of the relatively low costs of fossil-fired generation and because competitive electricity markets favor less capital-intensive natural gas technologies over coal and baseload renewables. Where enacted, state renewable portfolio standards, which specify a minimum share of generation or sales from renewable sources, contribute to the growth of renewables. With higher expected levels of industrial cogeneration and wind and geothermal generation, total renewable generation, including cogenerators, is projected to increase by 1.3 percent per year to a 2020 level that’s slightly higher than in AEO2001.

Energy Production and Imports

Total energy consumption is expected to increase more rapidly than domestic energy production through 2020. As a result, net imports of energy are projected to meet a growing share of energy demand. Projected U.S. crude oil production declines at an average annual rate of 0.2 percent from 2000 to 2020, to 5.6 million barrels per day. Production is projected to increase in the latter half of the forecast and is 0.6 million barrels per day higher in 2020 than in AEO2001, due to production from more fields in the National Petroleum Reserve- Alaska, which is expected to begin in 2010. As a result of projected increases in natural gas plant liquids production, total petroleum production is expected to increase through 2020.

Increasing demand for petroleum is projected to raise the share of demand met by net imports from 53 percent in 2000 to 62 percent in 2020 (lower than the 64-percent share in AEO2001, due to higher domestic production).

As demand for natural gas increases in the forecast, production is expected to increase from 19.1 to 28.5 trillion cubic feet between 2000 and 2020, an average annual rate of 2 percent. Projected production in 2020 is 0.6 trillion cubic feet lower than in AEO2001, because the projected rate of growth in demand is lower in AEO2002. Net imports, primarily from Canada, are projected to increase from 3.5 to 5.5 trillion cubic feet between 2000 and 2020. Net imports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are projected to increase to 0.8 trillion cubic feet by 2020. The remaining two of the four existing U.S. LNG import facilities have announced plans to reopen, and three of the four have announced capacity expansion plans.

U.S. coal production is projected to increase at an average annual rate of 1.3 percent, from 1,084 million tons in 2000 to 1,397 million tons in 2020, as domestic demand grows. Projected production in 2020 is 66 million tons higher than in AEO2001. Coal exports are projected to decline slightly through 2020, as European demand for imports declines as a result of environmental concerns and competition from other producers.

Renewable energy production is projected to increase from 6.5 to 8.9 quadrillion Btu between 2000 and 2020, with growth in industrial biomass, ethanol, and all sources of renewable electricity generation, with the exception of solar. Renewable energy production in 2020 is 0.6 quadrillion Btu higher than projected in AEO2001, due to higher expected levels of industrial cogeneration and generation from geothermal and wind energy.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Carbon dioxide emissions from energy use are projected to increase at an average rate of 1.5 percent per year, from 1,562 million metric tons carbon equivalent in 2000 to 2,088 million in 2020. Projected emissions in 2020 are higher by 47 million metric tons carbon equivalent than in AEO2001, due to higher projected energy demand in the commercial and transportation sectors and more coalfired electricity generation than in AEO2001. The higher projection for nuclear generation in AEO2002 offsets some of the increase that would be expected to result from these trends, but carbon dioxide emissions still are expected to increase more rapidly than total energy consumption, as a result of increasing use of fossil fuels, a slight decline in nuclear generation, and slow growth in renewable generation.

The projections do not include future actions that might be taken to reduce carbon dioxide emissions but do include voluntary actions to reduce energy demand and emissions.

The Energy Information Administration, created by Congress in 1977, is a statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Energy. It provides policy-independent data, forecasts, and analyses to promote sound policy making, efficient markets, and public understanding regarding energy and its interaction with the economy and the environment.

NIA Sites > Insulation Outlook Magazine > Global

Long Distance Delivery

The Alliance Pipeline and Aux Sable Liquid Products Plant provide a long term and much needed solution in the delivery, refinement and marketing of natural gas products in the United States. Completed in 2000, the Aux Sable Plant is strategically located to access large markets, particularly those in the Midwest that are frequently supply constrained. Located in Morris, Ill., 50 miles southwest of Chicago, the plant allows better economic use of the the major national gas fields in northern British Columbia. Aux Sable is the final destination for refining natural gas from these fields. Built simultaneously with Aux Sable, the Alliance Pipeline is more than 2,000 miles long, connecting the fields to one of the largest natural gas liquids (NGL) processing facilities in the Americas.

The Luse-Stevenson Co. of Chicago was fortunate to have a major role in this challenging venture. This article outlines the history and discusses the unique insulation requirements that were faced during construction.

The Dream Becomes Reality

NGL products (Ethane, Propane, normal Butane, Iso-Butane and natural gasoline) are plentiful in the northern territory. But the question was how to overcome the transportation costs and economics that had hindered the use of these valuable national resources. The Alliance Pipeline and Aux Sable Plant were built to answer such feasibility questions. The Aux Sable Plant is owned and financed by several large players in the energy/corporate community, including Costal Corporation, Enbridge Inc., Fort Chicago Energy Partners LP, the Williams Companies, Inc., and Westcoast Energy, Inc.

Needless to say, a project of this scope presented considerable engineering and design considerations. The price tag wasn’t going to be cheap, either-$4 billion for the pipeline and more than $365 million for the refinery. Also, an environmental impact and analysis needed to be completed. The pipeline, owned and operated by Alliance Pipeline LP, begins as a 42-inch main buried underground for nearly the entire 2,290 mile length. Before the pipeline could be built, the project had to be approved by federal, state and local jurisdictions of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, the state environmental protection agencies of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois, along with local jurisdictions. When the pipeline application was filed with FERC in 1998 by Aux Sable and Alliance Pipeline L.P., an environmental analysis was also required. It included a non-jurisdictional review of these facilities, as required by the National Environmental Policy Act.

Since the pipeline would cross mountains, riverbeds, farm fields and wild life reserves, these areas would need to be restored to their original condition. Process systems were required to be engineered and designed for long-term safe operations.

The Aux Sable Plant is located on land that once housed a natural gas facility, long since decommissioned and demolished. The use of this land shows that new economic benefits to the community can be accomplished through effectively planned re-use of previously disturbed land. Employment opportunities for local residents, coupled with an increased tax base for municipalities also made the reuse of the land parcel very attractive.

Project Profile and Statistics

The joint Alliance Pipeline and Aux Sable Plant Project was the largest construction undertaking completed in North America during 1999 and 2000. The project was a massive undertaking that combined a team effort of investors, engineers, construction managers, international unions, contractors and craft workers.

The pipeline runs 2,290 miles, flows through eight compressor stations before it reaches the end destination at the Aux Sable extraction and fractionation facility. The plant is currently designed to process 1.6 billion cubic feet of natural gas per day. It’s initially expected to recover 80,000 barrels per day of NGL derivatives, with one barrel equaling 42 U.S. gallons or 159 liters.

The extraction component consists of:

  • Two extraction trains, each with the capacity of processing over 1 billion cubic feet of natural gas per day.

The fractionation component includes:

  • A de-ethanizer: for recovering ethane for petrochemical feedstock

  • A de-propanizer: for recovering propane for farming, industrial, commercial, automotive and retail requirements (Propane is also used for home and industrial heating, crop drying, cooking and motor fuel.)

  • A de-butanizer and butane splitter: for recovering butanes and natural gasoline for gasoline line blending

All NGL can be used in the petrochemical industry as a feedstock for the production of ethylene propylene, butadiene and other derivatives. These intermediate compounds form the raw materials for end use products such as polyethylene, rubber, plastics, solvents and foam materials. The more severe the weather patterns in the region (i.e. heating fuel consumption) and the higher the degree of economic activity in the manufacturing sector, the stronger the demand is for NGL.

On site spheres can store 200,000 barrels of NGL product. Truck and rail car loading racks are constructed for movement to end market sales distribution.

Aux Sable Plant Construction

The Cleveland office of Morrison-Knudsen Corp. (MK), presently known as The Washington Group, was retained to manage the facility’s construction. Delta Hudson Engineering Ltd. of Calgary, Alberta, a well-known designer of NGL facilities, provided the engineering and procurement expertise for the facility. Luse-Stevenson was selected as the insulation contractor for the project.

Site preparation and clean up began in March of 1999, and completed (with product off to market) just less than two years later, in February 2001. Union contractors spent more than two million person at the site to build the project.

The construction activities at Aux Sable peaked with more than 1,000 craft workers. The project required specialized union labor from all of the industrial supportive crafts. Luse-Stevenson had more than 100 craft insulators working at the peak of construction. Chicago Local 17 provided craftworkers, but the heavy demand for skilled labor required even more workers. Local 17 worked hand-in-hand with Luse to deliver craft workers from various areas of the country. The project was performed under a local building trades agreement, creating a win/win situation for owner, management and local union interests.

As is the case in most projects of this magnitude, there was a 2-1/2 hour safety orientation geared specifically to the site. This orientation was conducted for all craft, management and vendors who would be present on the site for construction activities. On their first day at the site, employees were screened for drugs and alcohol. A Morrison-Knudsen nurse and first aid station were available to all contractors for initial/minor medical attention. Also, each contractor was required to have a full time safety professional with degree credentials to support a safe job site.

Key Construction Features

The Aux Sable Plant is comprised of a vast array of modular equipment and pressure vessels fabricated and assembled off-site. The two types of modules used were:

  • Pipe rack modules consisting of two to three levels of pipe and one level of electrical trays. Rack modules weighed 150 to 200 tons each and were an average of 22 feet wide by 30 feet high by 120 feet long.

  • Equipment modules containing vessels, pumps, exchangers with interconnecting pipe, electrical, instrumentation, insulation and platforms were also included and assembled at off site locations. Due to the size of some modules, barges were used to deliver the equipment. Either a "jack lift" system or large conventional cranes and crawler-tail cranes were used to off load, transport and erect the systems.
Insulation Contracting / Construction Phase

The project was one of the largest that Luse-Stevenson has undertaken to date. Peak site head count was as follows:

  • more than 100 craft workers

  • two general superintendents and four to six area foremen

  • a full time safety professional

  • two full time site assigned project managers

  • office labor and management support

The nature of the project included:

  • process skids pre-insulated (cross connections field installed)

  • modules of pipe rack pre-insulated (adjoining connections field installed)

  • vessels in various stages of insulation completion

  • field fabricated large and small-bore pipe requiring insulation.

The project required two on-site managers. One handled base contract while the second handled emergent work, module repairs and scope additions. Likewise, Luse-Stevenson’s two key superintendents were split on hard line duties of base versus emergent scope work.

The base contract consisted of insulating a total of 52,000 lineal feet of pipe. A significant amount of scope increases were identified soon after Luse-Steveneson’s mobilization. Due to project shipping and execution requirements, many of the skids/modules arrived on site with insulation systems partially complete. Several sea vans full of fabricated and tagged insulation components, originally intended to be applied off-site at the fabricator, were requisitioned to Luse by Morrison-Knudsen field construction. Inventories were done of these sea vans and they were eventually staged to each module for the completion of each system. Module piping and components were also electronically traced at the fabricator’s site, with the insulator initiating the megger test prior to completing the insulation application.

The project required nearly 25 semi truck loads of pipe insulation. Materials used included calcium silicate, mineral wool and cellular glass. Mineral wool was used exclusively for sound attenuation along with "safety green" sound absorbing aluminum jacketing on the dual compressor systems.

Cyrogenic systems in the two extraction trains required, in some cases, a triple layer of cellular glass at severely cold operating temperatures. Emergent work was identified in the pipe rack modules, as tie-in efforts discovered a lack of mastic joint sealant on pipes ranging upwards of 36 inch IPS x 8 inch thick. Luse-Stevenson insulators were employed to dismantle fabricator insulated systems for substantial repair needs. Jacketing was removed and re-used, multiple layers of cellular glass were removed, "buttered" at the joints and re-installed. The majority of original installation proved to work effectively, therefore, a contingency plan of 15 percent cellular glass was ordered to offset breakage and stress fractures.

Luse-Stevenson Pre-Planning and Project Management

In any business, it’s easy to underestimate the value of thorough and methodical pre-planning. This became very apparent to Luse-Stevenson management as we began to develop processes upon embarking on a total quality mission.

Employees and ownership must all be committed to continuous improvement of operating methods. At Luse-Stevenson, processes have been developed that include standardization, effective training techniques for both new and long-standing employees and documentation/communication techniques. Methods for pre-job planning, determining customer expectations, project reporting and cost control are also key issues that are developed and maintained.

Project controls are critical on an endeavor of this size. Controls for cost containment, site material inventory, procurement scheduling and progress reporting are demanded by all clients as they become sophisticated in these areas. Luse used Excel and Access software spreadsheets, charts and graphs to deliver complete and accurate reports to the Aux Sable/Morrison-Knudsen team. We have found that both spread sheets (numerical computations) and visual presentations are very effective.

Luse-Stevenson utilized its project management process to control the project. The process, which has been used for six years, was developed by a team of project managers and superintendents. Pre-planning is the main focus, along with project labor "phasing" by process system and/or area. The process calls for excellence in not only planning and executing the work, but also for safety performance, document control, client communications and reporting.

An extremely valuable asset to the team was Aux Sable’s construction knowledge of similar plants in the past. A facility of this nature had not been constructed in the United States. Canadian knowledge and experience gave forethought and valuable knowledge to the entire program.

Completion Equals Celebration

The culmination of hard work was recognized by the ownership of Alliance Pipeline and Aux Sable. There were three separate celebrations across North America. The first was in Calgary upon the release of flow for the first raw product natural gas into the system.

This event was then relayed via a function at Chicago’s Adler Planetarium in early December 2000. The black-tie affair was attended by pipeline and plant ownership, federal, state, local and municipality officials, plant executives, attorneys, engineers and contractors. A film presentation of the initial start-up scene in the Calgary control room was shown in both of the planetarium’s "Starviewing" theaters. The presentation also detailed the project from the dream, to the planning, engineering, regulatory approval, construction activities, and plant operations at the final destination, Aux Sable.

Guests were in for a treat as each state that the pipeline passed through was represented at a food station; with specialties such as Iowa corn fed beef, Illinois pork and Dakota wild rice were served to the guests as food indigenous to each state.

The final event occurred later in December in Washington, D.C., where many additional contributors and involved parties were entertained and thanked for their participation in this huge undertaking.

The plant is up and running nearing its third quarter of operation. The dream has became a reality.